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The Sheahan Diamond Literature Reference Compilation - Technical Articles based on Major Region - Northwest Territories
The Sheahan Diamond Literature Reference Compilation is compiled by Patricia Sheahan who publishes on a monthly basis a list of new scientific articles related to diamonds as well as media coverage and corporate announcements called the Sheahan Diamond Literature Service that is distributed as a free pdf to a list of followers. Pat has kindly agreed to allow her work to be made available as an online digital resource at Kaiser Research Online so that a broader community interested in diamonds and related geology can benefit. The references are for personal use information purposes only; when available a link is provided to an online location where the full article can be accessed or purchased directly. Reproduction of this compilation in part or in whole without permission from the Sheahan Diamond Literature Service is strictly prohibited. Return to Diamond Region Index
Sheahan Diamond Literature Reference Compilation - Scientific Articles by Author for all years
Each article reference in the SDLRC is tagged with one or more key words assigned by Pat Sheahan to highlight the main topics of the article. In addition most references have been tagged with one or more region words. In an effort to make it easier for users to track down articles related to a specific region, KRO has extracted these region words and developed a list of major region words presented in the Major Region Index to which individual region words used in the article reference have been assigned. Each individual Region Report contains in chronological order all the references with a region word associated with the Major Region word. Depending on the total for each reference type - technical, media and corporate - the references will be either in their own technical, media or corporate Region Report, or combined in a single report. Where there is a significant number of technical references there will be a technical report dedicated to the technical articles while the media and corporate references are combined in a separate region report. References that were added in the most recent monthly update are highlighted in yellow within the Region Report. The Major Region words have been defined by a scale system of "general", "continent", "country", "state or province" and "regional". Major Region words at the smaller scales have been created only when there are enough references to make isolating them worthwhile. References not tagged with a Region are excluded, and articles with a region word not matched with a Major Region show up in the "Unknown" report.
Kimberlite - diamondiferous
Lamproite - diamondiferous
Lamprophyre - diamondiferous
Other - diamondiferous
Kimberlite - non diamondiferous
Lamproite - non diamondiferous
Lamprophyre - non diamondiferous
Other - non diamondiferous
Kimberlite - unknown
Lamproite - unknown
Lamprophyre - unknown
Other - unknown
Future Mine
Current Mine
Former Mine
Click on icon for details about each occurrence. Works best with Google Chrome.
CITATION: Faure, S, 2010, World Kimberlites CONSOREM Database (Version 3), Consortium de Recherche en Exploration Minérale CONSOREM, Université du Québec à Montréal, Numerical Database on consorem.ca. NOTE: This publicly available database results of a compilation of other public databases, scientific and governmental publications and maps, and various data from exploration companies reports or Web sites, If you notice errors, have additional kimberlite localizations that should be included in this database, or have any comments and suggestions, please contact the author specifying the ID of the kimberlite: [email protected]
The Freemans Cove Volcanic Suite: Field Relations Petrochemistry and Tectonic Setting of Nephelinite Basanite Volcanism associated with Rifting in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago.
Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, Vol. 21, PP. 428-436.
A zoned low pressure-high T complex at the level of anatexis- structural and plutonic patterns in metasediments of the Archean Yellowknife Supergroup, near Bathurst Inlet
Exploration overview 1989, mining, exploration and geologicalinvestigations. Prepared March 1990 -handout at Prospectors and Developers Association of Canada (PDAC).
Tectonics and genesis of 1.85 Ga ultrapotassic volcanism, District ofKeewatin
Geological Association of Canada (GAC)/Mineralogical Association of Canada (MAC)/SEG Annual Meeting May 27-29. Toronto, Ontario, Abstract, Vol. 16, p. A98. Abstract
neodymium isotope evolution of the Taltson magmatic zone, Northwest Canada: insights into Early Proterozoic accretion along w margin of the Churchill Province
Lamproite diatreme in the Dubawnt Lake area, Northwest Territories
The Canadian Mining and Metallurgical Bulletin (CIM Bulletin) , Annual Meeting Abstracts approximately 10 lines, Vol. 86, No. 968, March POSTER ABSTRACT p. 67
Exploration for kimberlites: a review of geophysical exploration methodswith examples from Point Lake, northwest Territories using an optimized GEOTEM.
Geoterrex Handout PDA Conference March 30, 1993, 23p
Preservation and destruction of ancient Diamondiferous mantle roots:consequences for area selection in exploration for primary diamond deposits
The Canadian Mining and Metallurgical Bulletin (CIM Bulletin) , Annual Meeting Abstracts approximately 10 lines, Vol. 86, No. 968, March ABSTRACT p. 71
Geotectonic controls of primary diamond deposits: implications for diamond exploration models and Archean tectonics
Mid-continent diamonds Geological Association of Canada (GAC)-Mineralogical Association of Canada (MAC) Symposium ABSTRACT volume, held Edmonton May, pp. 7-10
Pleistocene stratigraphy, paleopedology and paleoecology of a multiple till sequence exposed on the Little Bear River, western district of Mackenzie, northwest Territories.
Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, Vol. 30, No. 4, April pp. 851-866
Northwest Territories
Geomorphology, Physiography western district of Mackenzie
Diamonds in the Lac de Gras area, Northwest Territories, Canada
Mid-continent diamonds Geological Association of Canada (GAC)-Mineralogical Association of Canada (MAC) Symposium ABSTRACT volume, held Edmonton May, pp. 95-99
Canadian diamond exploration.. high risk.. high reward. Background-historical and overview of current northwest Territories play to date June 11, 1993.
Bunting Warburg Inc. Research Report, June 11, 23p.
Kimberlites and diamonds in the Northwest Territories -explorationhighlights.
The Canadian Mining and Metallurgical Bulletin (CIM Bulletin) , Annual Meeting Abstracts approximately 10 lines, Vol. 86, No. 968, March POSTER ABSTRACT p. 68.
Northwest Territories kimberlites and diamonds: exploration highlights andimplications.
Mid-continent diamonds Geological Association of Canada (GAC)-Mineralogical Association of Canada (MAC) Symposium ABSTRACT volume, held Edmonton May, pp. 89-94.
Lamproites and diamond potential of the Churchill Province
The Canadian Mining and Metallurgical Bulletin (CIM Bulletin) , Annual Meeting Abstracts approximately 10 lines, Vol. 86, No. 968, March ABSTRACT p. 71.
The Canadian Mining and Metallurgical Bulletin (CIM Bulletin) , Annual Meeting Abstracts LESS than approximately 10, Vol. 86, No. 968, March ABSTRACT p. 75.
Diabase dikes and kimberlites - a new link to diamonds?
The Canadian Mining and Metallurgical Bulletin (CIM Bulletin) , Annual Meeting Abstracts approximately 10 lines, Vol. 86, No. 968, March ABSTRACT p. 71.
The aeromagnetic survey program of the Geological Society of Canada (GSC)- implications for kimberliteexploration.
Mid-continent diamonds Geological Association of Canada (GAC)-Mineralogical Association of Canada (MAC) Symposium ABSTRACT volume, held Edmonton May, pp. 27-30.
Garson, D.F., Jefferson, C.W., Kerwill, J.A., et al.
Mineral potential map of the northern Slave Province NTS 76, 86, a data-driven spatial modelling prototype for the mineral resources map of the Northwest Territories.
Geological Survey of Canada Open Forum January 17-19th. Abstracts only, p. 17.
uranium-lead (U-Pb) (U-Pb) ages of Proterozoic dyke swarms, Lac de Gras area, Northwest Territories: evidence for progressive break up of an Archean supercontinent.
Geological Association of Canada (GAC) Abstract Volume, Vol. 19, p.
The development of microanalyses of garnets in chromites for diamond exploration in northwest Territories.
Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration (SME)/American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers (AIME) PHoenix, Arizona, March 13th., p. 48. Abstract
An update on Southern Era reosurces Ltd. 2002 diamond exploration program in the Northwest Territories. Yamba Lake, Back Lake, Misty Lake, WO, Monument, Lac de Gras
30th. Yellowknife Geoscience Forum, Abstracts Of Talks And Posters, Nov. 20-22, p. 48,49. abstract
Nd isotope systematics of 2.7 Ga adakites, magnesian andesites and arc basalts, Superior Province: evidence for shallow crustal recycling at Archean subduction zones
Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Vol. 202, 2, pp. 345-60.
Organic petrology, organic geochemistry, palynology and petrophysics dat a from Lac de Gras kimberlites and associated sedimentary rocks and xenoliths.
Geological Survey of Canada Open File, No. 4272, 1 CD $ 32.50
Products of 2.65 - 2.58 Ga orogenesis in the Slave Province correlated with Slave - Northern Cordillera Lithospheric Evolution ( SNORCLE) seismic reflection
Canadian Journal of Earth Science, Vol. 39,8,August pp. 1189-1200.
Northwest Territories
Geophysics - seismic, Slave Province - tectonics, geodynamics
Diamonds in the rough: a new industry emerging in Canada's North.
Canada Forum: Held Nov. 204, Joint Ventures-Joint Rewards. The resource industry and aboriginal development co, info @canadaforum.com 180p. binder $ 120.00
Cr Ca and related characteristics of peridotitic garnets from the central Slave and central Kaapvaal craton roots, with implications - carbon in peridotite
GAC Annual Meeting Halifax May 15-19, Abstract 1p.
National geochemical Reconnaissance: regional stream sediment and water data: Travaillant Lake area.. analytical, mineralogical kimberlite indicator data
Geological Survey of Canada Open File, 4951, 1 CD May 17, $ 9.10
Multistage exhumation and juxaposition of lower continental crust in the western Canadian Shield: linking high resolution U Pb and 40 Ar / 39 Ar thermochronometry with pressure temperature deformation paths.
SHRIMP U Pb geochronology of detrital zircons from the Treasure Lake Group - new evidence for Paleoproterozoic collisional tectonics in the southern Hottah terrane.
Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, Vol. 42, 5, pp. 833-845.
An investigation of upper mantle heterogeneity beneath the Archean and Proterozoic crust of western Canada from lithoprobe controlled source seismic experiments.
Tectonophysics, Vol. 416, 1-4, April 5, pp. 187-207.
Stable isotope composition of magmatic and deuteric carbonate phases in hypabyssal kimberlite, Lac de Gras field: implications for the composition of fluids...
Impacts of roads associated with the Ekati diamond mine, Northwest Territories, Canada, on reproductive success and breeding habitat of Lapland Longspurs.
Canadian Journal of Zoology, Vol. 83, 10, pp. 1286-1296.
A subduction wedge origin for Paleoarchean peridotitic diamonds and harzburgites from the PAnd a kimberlite, Slave Craton: evidence from Re Os isotope systematics.
Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, Vol. 152, 3, pp. 275-294.
Defining a suitable level of site characterization - case history on the influence of an undetected highly permeable geologic structure on inflows to the A154
34th Yellowknife Geoscience Forum, p. 47-48. abstract
Primary melting sequence of a deep ( >250 km) lithospheric mantle as recorded in the geochemistry of kimberlite carbonatite assemblages, Snap Lake dyke system, Canada.
Fedortchouk, Y., Matveev, S., Charnell, C., Carlson, J.A.
Kimberlitic fluid as recorded by dissolving diamonds and crystallizaing olivine phenocrysts in five Lac de Gras kimberlites, Northwest Territories, Canada.
Progressive infilling of a kimberlite pipe at Diavik, Northwest Territories, Canada: insights from volcanic facies architecture, textures and granulometry.
Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, Vol. 174, 1-3, pp. 103-116.
Rising to the challenge: hunting for diamonds (arctic) De Beers, Mountain Province, GGL, Diamondex, Peregrine, New Nadina, Sanatana, Indicator, Shear, SouthernEra
Diamonds in Canada Magazine, Northern Miner, November pp. 11-15.
In vent column collapse as an alternative model for massive volcaniclastic kimberlite emplacement: an example from the Fox kimberlite, Ekati diamond mine.
Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, Vol. 174, 1-3, pp. 90-102. reply in press 17p.
An overview of the Mud Lake kimberlite, SW Slave Craton, Northwest Territories, and implications of the presence of high Cr2O3, CaO rich green garnets.
Whither the kimberlite indicator and diamond database (KIDD) and kimberlite indicator mineral chemistry Database ( KIMC): integration into GOMAP for on-line
35th. Yellowknife Geoscience Forum, Abstracts only p. 55.
Phanerozoic burial and unroofing of the western Slave Craton and Wopmay Orogen from apatite ( U Th/He thermochronometry, assessing links between surface/deep
American Geological Union, Fall meeting Dec. 15-19, Eos Trans. Vol. 89, no. 53, meeting supplement, 1p. abstract
Paleomagnetism and UPb geochronology of the Lac de Gras diabase dyke swarm, Slave Province, Canada: implications for relative drift of Slave and Superior
Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, Vol. 46, 5, May pp.361-379.
Paleomagnetism and U-Pb geochronology of the Lac de Gras diabase dyke swarm, Slave Province Canada: implications for relative drift of Slave and Superior provinces in the Paleoproterozoic.
Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, Vol. 46, pp. 361-379.
Burgess, R., Cartigny, P., Harrison, D., Hobson, E., Harris, J.
Volatile composition of Micro inclusions in diamonds from the PAnd a kimberlite, Canada: implications for chemical and isotopic heterogeneity in the mantle.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, Vol. 73, 6, pp. 1779-1794.
Cartigny, P., Farquar, J., Thomassot, E., Harris, J.W., Wing, B., Masterson, A., McKeegan, K., Stachel, T.
A mantle origin for Paleoarchean peridotite diamonds from the PAnd a kimberlite, Slave Province: evidence from 13C, 15N and 34,34S stable isotope systematics.
Reconstruction of a kimberlite eruption using an integrated volcanological geochemical and numerical approach: a case study of the Fox kimberlite, NWT Canada
Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, Vol. 179, 3-4, pp. 241-254.
Sobolev, N., Wirth, R., Logvinova, A.M., Pokhilenko, N.P., Kuzmin, D.V.
Retrograde phase transitions of majorite garnets included in diamonds: a case study of subcalcic Cr rich majorite pyrope from a Snap Lake diamond, Canada.
American Geological Union, Fall meeting Dec. 15-19, Eos Trans. Vol. 89, no. 53, meeting supplement, 1p. abstract
Quantifying carbon fixation in trace minerals from processed kimberlite: a comparative study of quantitative methods using X-ray powder diffraction data
The influence of complex intra and extra vent processes on facies characteristics of the Koala kimberlite, NWT, Canada: volcanology, sedimentology, intrusive processes
Diamond summary for July 14, briefs on Harry Winston's Diavik production, Shore Gold's feasibility, Shear's progress on Jericho and their other properties .
The nature of diamonds and their mineral inclusions: a study of diamonds from the PAnd a and Jagersfontein kimberlites and from placer deposits in Brazil.
Thesis, University of Alberta, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, 214p.
Canada, Northwest Territories, Africa, South Africa, Brazil
Thesis - note availability based on request to author
Kimberlite indicator minerals in terrigene sediments of lower part of Mackenzie River Basin, NWT, Canada: evidence of new craton with thick lithosphere.
10th. International Kimberlite Conference Feb. 6-11, Bangalore India, Abstract
Porritt, L.A., Cas, R.A.F., Ailleres, L., Oshust, P.
The influence of volcanological and sedimentaological processes on diamond grade distribution in kimberlites: examples from the Ekati diamond mine, NWT, Canada.
Bulletin of Volcanology, Vol. 73, 8, pp. 1085-1105.
Diamond mining and sustainability at De Beers' Canadian mines.
Proceedings of the 10th. International Kimberlite Conference, Vol. 2, Special Issue of the Journal of the Geological Society of India,, Vol. 2, pp. 289-294.
A phreatomagmatic kimberlite: the A418 kimberlite pipe, Northwest Territories, Canada.
Proceedings of the 10th. International Kimberlite Conference, Vol. 2, Special Issue of the Journal of the Geological Society of India,, Vol. 2, pp. 97-107.
Devriese, S.G.R., Corcoran, N., Cowan, D., Davis, K., Bild-Enkin, D., Fournier, D., Heagy, L., Kang, S., Marchant, D., McMillan, M.S., Mitchell, M., Rosenkjar, G., Yang, D., Oldenburg, D.W.
Magnetic inversion of three airborne dat a sets over the Tli Kwi Cho kimberlite complex.
SEG Annual Meeting Denver, pp. 1790-1794 extended abstract
Fournier, D., Heagy, L., Corcoran, N., Devriese, S.G.R., Bild-Enkin, D., Davis, K., Kang, S., Marchant, D., McMillan, M.S., Mitchell, M., Rosenkjar, G., Yang, D., Oldenburg, D.W.
Multi-EM systems inversion - towards a common conductivity model for Tli Kwi Cho complex.
SEG Annual Meeting Denver, pp. 1795-1798. Extended abstract
Tappert, M.C., Rivard, B., Layton-Matthews, D., Tappert, R.
High-spatial resolution hyper spectral imagery: a new analytical technique for obtaining compositional information from kimberlites ( Snap Lake, NT) and kimberlite indicator minerals.
2014 Yellowknife Geoscience Forum, p. 75, abstract
Devriese, S.G.R., Corcoran, N., Cowan, D., Davis, K., Bild-Enkin, D., Fournier, D., Heagy, L., Kang, S., Marchant, D., McMillan, M.S., Mitchell, M., Rosenkjar, G., Yang, D., Oldenburg, D.W.
Abstract: The magnetic and electromagnetic responses from airborne systems at Tli Kwi Cho, a kimberlite complex in the Northwest Territories, Canada, have received considerable attention over the last two decades but a complete understanding of the causative physical properties is not yet at hand. Our analysis is distributed among three papers. In the first, we find a 3D magnetic susceptibility model for the area; in the second, we find a 3D conductivity model; and in the third paper, we find a 3D chargeability model. Our goal is to explain all the geophysical results within a geologic framework. In this first paper, we invert three independent airborne magnetic data sets flown over the Tli Kwi Cho kimberlite complex located in the Lac de Gras kimberlite field in Northwest Territories, Canada. The complex consists of two kimberlites known as DO-27 and DO-18. An initial airborne DIGHEM survey was flown in 1992 and AeroTEM and VTEM data subsequently acquired in 2003 and 2004, respectively. In this paper, we invert each magnetic data set in three dimensions. Both kimberlites are recovered in each model, with DO-27 as a more susceptible body than DO-18. Our goal is to simultaneously invert the three data sets to generate a single susceptibility model for Tli Kwi Cho. This project is part of a larger, on-going investigation by UBC-GIF on inverting magnetic, electromagnetic, and induced polarization data from the Tli Kwi Cho area.
Fournier, D., Heagy, L., Corcoran, N., Cowan, D., Devriese, S.G.R., Bild-Enkin, D., Davis, K., Kang, S., Marchant, D., McMillan, M.S., Mitchell, M., Rosenkjar, G., Yang, D., Oldenburg, D.W.
Abstract: The magnetic and electromagnetic responses from airborne systems at Tli Kwi Cho, a kimberlite complex in the Northwest Territories, Canada, have received considerable attention over the last two decades but a complete understanding of the causative physical properties is not yet at hand. Our analysis is distributed among three posters. In the first we find a 3D magnetic susceptibility model for the area; in the second we find a 3D conductivity model; and in the third we find a 3D chargeability model that can explain the negative transient responses measured over the kimberlite pipes. In this second paper we focus upon the task of finding a conductivity model that is compatible with three airborne data sets flown between 1992 and 2004: one frequency-domain data set (DIGHEM) and two time-domain systems (AeroTEM and VTEM). The goal is to obtain a 3D model from which geologic questions can be answered, but even more importantly, to provide a background conductivity needed to complete the 3D IP inversion of airborne EM data. We begin by modifying our pre-existing 1D frequency and time domain inversion codes to produce models that have more lateral continuity. The results are useful in their own right but we have also found that 1D analysis is often very effective in bringing to light erroneous data, assisting in estimating noise floors, and providing some starting information for developing a background model for the 3D EM inversion. Here we show some results from our Laterally Constrained Inversion (LCI) framework. The recovered conductivity models seem to agree on the general location of the kimberlite pipes but disagree on the geometry and conductivity values at depth. The complete 3D inversions in time and frequency, needed to resolved these issues, are currently in progress.
Abstract: This study presents detailed petrographical and geochemical investigations on remarkably fresh olivines in kimberlites from the EKATI Diamond Mine- located in the Tertiary/Cretaceous Lac de Gras kimberlite field within the Slave craton of Canada. Olivine, constituting about 42 vol.% of the analyzed samples, can be divided into two textural groups: (i) macrocrystic olivines, > 100 ?m sub-rounded crystals and (ii) groundmass olivines, < 100 ?m subhedral crystals. Olivines from both populations define two distinct chemical trends; a “ "mantle trend" with angular cores, showing low Ca (< 0.1 wt.% CaO) and high Ni (0.3-0.4 wt.% NiO) at varying Mg# (0.86-0.93), contrasts with a "melt trend" typified by thin (< 100 ?m) rims with increasing Ca (up to 1.0 wt.% CaO) and decreasing Ni (down to 0.1 wt.% NiO) contents at constant Mg# (~ 0.915). These findings are in agreement with recent studies suggesting that virtually all olivine is composed of xenocrystic (i.e. mantle-related) cores with phenocrystic (i.e. melt-related) overgrowths, thereby challenging the traditional view that the origin of kimberlitic olivine can be distinguished based on size and morphology. The two main trends can be further resolved into sub-groups refining the crystallization history of olivine; the mantle trend indicates a multi-source origin that samples the layered lithosphere below the Slave craton, whereas the melt trend represents multi-stage crystallization comprising a differentiation trend starting at mantle conditions and a second trend controlled by the crystallization of additional phases (e.g. chromite) and changing magma conditions (e.g. oxidation). These trends are also seen in the concentrations of trace elements not routinely measured in olivine (e.g. Na, P, Ti, Co, Sc, Zr). Trace element mapping with LA-ICP-MS reveals the distribution of these elements within olivine grains. The trace element distribution between the two trends appears to be consistent with phenocrystic olivine overgrowths mainly originating from dissolved orthopyroxene, showing enrichment in Zr, Ga, Nb, Sc, V, P, Al, Ti, Cr, Ca and Mn in the melt trend. In a sample of magmatic kimberlite from the Leslie pipe, the amount of xenocrystic and phenocrystic olivine is estimated to be around 23 vol.% and 19 vol.%, respectively. Subtraction of this xenocrystic olivine from the Leslie bulk composition, aimed at estimating the parental kimberlite melt, results in a minor decrease of Mg# (by about 0.01) and SiO2 content (by about 3 wt.%), whereas CaO increases (by about 3 wt.%).
Duration and periodicity of kimberlite volcanic activity in the Lac de Gras kimberlite field, Canada and some recommendations for kimberlite geochronology.
The Diavik waste rock project: geochemical and microbiological characterization of drainage from low sulfide waste rock: active zone field experiments.
Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Vol. 424, pp. 119-131.
Canada, Northwest Territories, Africa, Tanzania
Deposit - Diavik, Igwisi Hills
Abstract: Olivine xenocrysts are ubiquitous in kimberlite deposits worldwide and derive from the disaggregation of mantle-derived peridotitic xenoliths. Here, we provide descriptions of textural features in xenocrystic olivine from kimberlite deposits at the Diavik Diamond Mine, Canada and at Igwisi Hills volcano, Tanzania. We establish a relative sequence of textural events recorded by olivine during magma ascent through the cratonic mantle lithosphere, including: xenolith disaggregation, decompression fracturing expressed as mineral- and fluid-inclusion-rich sealed and healed cracks, grain size and shape modification by chemical dissolution and abrasion, late-stage crystallization of overgrowths on olivine xenocrysts, and lastly, mechanical milling and rounding of the olivine cargo prior to emplacement. Ascent through the lithosphere operates as a "kimberlite factory" wherein progressive upward dyke propagation of the initial carbonatitic melt fractures the overlying mantle to entrain and disaggregate mantle xenoliths. Preferential assimilation of orthopyroxene (Opx) xenocrysts by the silica-undersaturated carbonatitic melt leads to deep-seated exsolution of CO2-rich fluid generating buoyancy and supporting rapid ascent. Concomitant dissolution of olivine produces irregular-shaped relict grains preserved as cores to most kimberlitic olivine. Multiple generations of decompression cracks in olivine provide evidence for a progression in ambient fluid compositions (e.g., from carbonatitic to silicic) during ascent. Numerical modelling predicts tensile failure of xenoliths (disaggregation) and olivine (cracks) over ascent distances of 2-7 km and 15-25 km, respectively, at velocities of 0.1 to >4 m?s?1. Efficient assimilation of Opx during ascent results in a silica-enriched, olivine-saturated kimberlitic melt (i.e. SiO2 >20 wt.%) that crystallizes overgrowths on partially digested and abraded olivine xenocrysts. Olivine saturation is constrained to occur at pressures <1 GPa; an absence of decompression cracks within olivine overgrowths suggests depths <25 km. Late stage (<25 km) resurfacing and reshaping of olivine by particle-particle milling is indicative of turbulent flow conditions within a fully fluidized, gas-charged, crystal-rich magma.
Tappert, M.C., Rivard, B., Fulop, A., Rogge, D., Feng, J., Tappert, R., Stalder, R.
Characterizing kimberlite dilution by crustal rocks at the Snap Lake diamond mine ( Northwest Territories, Canada) using SWIR ( 1.90-2.36 um) and LWIR ( 8.1-11.1um) hypersprectal imagery collected from drill core.
Economic Geology, Vol. 110, 6, Sept-Oct. pp. 1375-1387.
Abstract: Happening as it does deep within the Earth’s mantle, the process of creating diamonds has always been a bit murky. Laypeople understand the explanation has something to do with enormous pressure exerted on carbon. Hollywood once portrayed the process, perhaps just a tad simplistically, when it showed Superman producing a diamond by squeezing a lump of coal in his hand. But a paper published by the academic journal Nature on August 19 suggests ancient seawater played a key role, at least in the diamonds of the Northwest Territories’ Slave Craton.
Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 49, 13, pp. 7589-7596.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Deposit - Diavik
Abstract: Mining-related perchlorate [ClO4(-)] in the receiving environment was investigated at the operating open-pit and underground Diavik diamond mine, Northwest Territories, Canada. Samples were collected over four years and ClO4(-) was measured in various mine waters, the 560 km(2) ultraoligotrophic receiving lake, background lake water and snow distal from the mine. Groundwaters from the underground mine had variable ClO4(-) concentrations, up to 157 ?g L(-1), and were typically an order of magnitude higher than concentrations in combined mine waters prior to treatment and discharge to the lake. Snow core samples had a mean ClO4(-) concentration of 0.021 ?g L(-1) (n=16). Snow and lake water Cl(-)/ClO4(-) ratios suggest evapoconcentration was not an important process affecting lake ClO4(-) concentrations. The multiyear mean ClO4(-) concentrations in the lake were 0.30 ?g L(-1) (n = 114) in open water and 0.24 ?g L(-1) (n = 107) under ice, much below the Canadian drinking water guideline of 6 ?g L(-1). Receiving lake concentrations of ClO4(-) generally decreased year over year and ClO4(-) was not likely [biogeo]chemically attenuated within the receiving lake. The discharge of treated mine water was shown to contribute mining-related ClO4(-) to the lake and the low concentrations after 12 years of mining were attributed to the large volume of the receiving lake.
Mine Water and the Environment, in press available, 19p.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Deposit - Gahcho Kue
Abstract: Eight water models were used to assess potential aquatic environmental effects of the proposed Gahcho Kué diamond mine on groundwater and surface water flow and quality in the Northwest Territories, Canada. This sequence of models was required to cover different spatial and temporal domains, as well as specific physico-chemical processes that could not be simulated by a single model. Where their domains overlapped, the models were interlinked. Feedback mechanisms amongst models were addressed through iterative simulations of linked models. The models were used to test and refine mitigation plans, and in the development of aquatic component monitoring programs. Key findings generated by each model are presented here as testable hypotheses that can be evaluated after the mine is operational. This paper therefore offers a record of assumptions and predictions that can be used as a basis for post-validation.
Abstract: Size frequency distributions are the principal tool for predicting the macro-diamond grade of new kimberlite discoveries, based on micro-diamonds (i.e., diamond ? 0.5 mm) recovered from small exploration samples. Lognormal size frequency distributions – as observed for the Artemisia kimberlite (Slave Craton, Canada) – suggest a common source for micro- and macro-diamonds recovered from single samples, an implication that has never been conclusively tested. We analyzed 209 diamonds between 0.2 and 2 mm in size from the Artemisia kimberlite for their carbon isotopic compositions and nitrogen characteristics to determine the nature of the micro-/macro-diamond relationship.-Despite overall similarity in the ?13C distributions of micro- and macro-diamonds – both are bimodal with peaks in classes ? 5.0 to ? 4.5‰ and ? 3.5 to ? 3.0‰ – rare diamonds with ?13C between ? 14.2 and ? 24.5‰ of presumed eclogitic origin are restricted to macro-diamonds, whereas positive values are only observed for micro-diamonds. In addition, a shift in main mode and median value in ?13C of about +1‰ is observed for micro- relative to macro-diamonds. Fundamental differences between micro- and macro-diamonds at Artemisia were revealed through the analysis of nitrogen concentrations: 68% of micro-diamonds are Type II (“nitrogen free”) versus 21% of macro-diamonds, and only 19% of micro-diamonds have nitrogen contents > 100 atomic ppm versus 43% of macro-diamonds. Similarly, the presence of a detectable hydrogen related peak (at 3107 cm? 1) increases from 40% for micro-diamonds to 94% for macro-diamonds.-Previous studies on diamond populations from individual deposits have documented that single batches of ascending kimberlite or lamproite magma sample multiple diamond subpopulations formed during distinct growth events in compositionally variable sources and at various depth levels. The Artemisia data clearly show that even over a fairly narrow size interval, spanning the micro- to macro-diamond transition, the specific diamond subpopulations present and their relative proportions may vary significantly with diamond size. At Artemisia, we conclude that the observed lognormal size distribution is not a reflection of an entirely common origin of micro- and macro-diamonds.
Abstract: Two experimental waste-rock piles (test piles), each 15 m in height × 60 m × 50 m, were constructed at the Diavik diamond mine in Northern Canada to study the behavior of low-sulfide content waste rock, with a similarly low acid-neutralization potential, in a continuous permafrost region. One test pile with an average of 0.035 wt.% S (<50 mm fraction; referred to as Type I) and a second test pile with an average of 0.053 wt.% S (<50 mm fraction; referred to as Type III) were constructed in 2006. The average carbon content in the <50 mm fraction of waste rock in the Type I test pile was 0.031 wt.% as C and in the Type III test pile was 0.030 wt.% as C. The NP:AP ratio, based on the arithmetic mean of particle-size weighted NP and AP values, for the Type I test pile was 12.2, suggesting this test pile was non-acid generating and for the Type III test pile was 2.2, suggesting an uncertain acid-generating potential. The Type I test pile maintained near-neutral pH for the 4-year duration of the study. Sulfate and dissolved metal concentrations were low, with the exception of Ni, Zn, Cd, and Co in the fourth year following construction. The pore water in the Type III test pile contained higher concentrations of SO42? and dissolved metals, with a decrease in pH to <4.7 and an annual depletion of alkalinity. Maximum concentrations of dissolved metals (20 mg L?1 Ni, 2.3 mg L?1 Cu, 3.7 mg L?1 Zn, 35 ?g L?1 Cd, and 3.8 mg L?1 Co) corresponded to decreases in flow rate, which were observed at the end of each field season when the contribution of the total outflow from the central portion of the test pile was greatest. Bacteria were present each year in spite of annual freeze/thaw cycles. The microbial community within the Type I test pile included a population of neutrophilic S-oxidizing bacteria. Each year, changes in the water quality of the Type III test-pile effluent were accompanied by changes in the microbial populations. Populations of acidophilic S-oxidizing bacteria and Fe-oxidizing bacteria became more abundant as the pH decreased and internal test pile temperatures increased. Irrespective of the cold-climate conditions and low S content of the waste rock, the geochemical and microbiological results of this study are consistent with other acid mine drainage studies; indicating that a series of mineral dissolution-precipitation reactions controls pH and metal mobility, and transport is controlled by matrix-dominated flow and internal temperatures.
A 2015 geophysical update for Kennady North project, NT.
43rd Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum Abstracts, abstract p. 16.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Deposit - Kennady North
Abstract: This presentation will provide an update of geophysical surveys performed in 2015. These surveys were undertaken to aid in the delineation of known kimberlites and discovery of potential kimberlite targets on Kennady Diamonds Inc.'s Kennady North Property. In 2015, Kennady Diamonds Inc. focused most of their geophysical budget on expansion of the known kimberlites. Previous OhmMapper surveys were expanded in the Doyle & MZ Areas in order to provide locations for exploration drilling. Ground based Gravity surveys were completed using an increased sample density in key areas. This increased density in the gravity data proved to be very helpful in the detailed drilling of the Kelvin and Faraday kimberlite bodies. Late in the summer season, a small scale marine seismic system was utilized on the Kelvin and Faraday lakes. This data will hopefully be used to discover potential areas of new or thicker kimberlite under the lake. As the Kelvin and Faraday kimberlites are not the typical pipe-like bodies, many different geophysical tools from our toolbox must be utilized.
43rd Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum Abstracts, abstract p. 18.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Deposit - Ekati
Abstract: Dominion Diamond Ekati Corporation (DDEC) purchased two unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV's) in 2014 to assist in surveying the active open pits and kimberlite stockpiles at the mine. UAV technology has allowed the team to survey various aspects of the mine in a safer and more accurate. manner. Along with making day to day work more efficient, DDEC surveying now has the ability to complete various other requests from departments at the mine. These include; large area photographs of lay downs, new road alignments, projects and environmental areas of interest.
43rd Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum Abstracts, abstract p. 22.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Geochemistry
Abstract: Attention is being focused on the development of deep penetrating geochemical exploration methods as the discovery rate of world class deposits decreases. Diamondiferous kimberlites located in the Lac de Gras region of the Northwest Territories are one of the many deposit types in Canada covered by glacial overburden, and are therefore challenging to detect. This paper presents initial results from an investigation of the DO-18 kimberlite (Peregrine Diamonds), buried under 5-20m of glacial cover, to identify surface geochemical responses directly related to the buried kimberlite and differentiate between physical and chemical transport mechanisms. A detailed grid of 150 samples over an area of 0.5km2 sampled the oxidized upper B soil horizon in till above and off the DO-18 kimberlite into background. Regolith mapping was conducted and included surficial soil type and rock fragments, topographic variation and physical features, e.g. bogs, swamps, vegetation and glacial direction indicators. This allows an assessment of surface controls on the geochemistry, including the generation of false anomalies from chemical traps such as swamps. Multi-element geochemistry comprising 4-acid, Aqua-Regia and distilled water extraction coupled with ICP-MS was undertaken using commercial techniques to identify and differentiate between those elements migrating by chemical process from those migrating by physical transportation. Hydrocarbons were analysed using the SGH-technique (ActLabs) and the Gore-sorber technique (AGI) to characterize type and abundance of complex hydrocarbons above the kimberlite relative to the host granite gneiss. Preliminary results from the 4-acid digestion data show a clastic dispersion of Nb, Ni, Mg, Co, Cr and Cs from directly above the kimberlite to the edge of the sampling grid 500 metres northwest of the buried kimberlite. Surface material exhibits a strong control on geochemistry with trace elements being controlled by major elements (Al, Fe, Mn) found within each surface material type, and in some cases are heavily influenced by the presence of organic carbon. Evaluation of these relationships allows clarification of the natural background noise and enhancement of the geochemical responses and contrasts.
43rd Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum Abstracts, abstract p. 24.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Deposit - Ekati
Abstract: How would a large open pit mine on caribou range (e.g., the Ekati Diamond Mine in the Bathurst caribou’s summer range) have influenced caribou? A traditional knowledge study on the cumulative impacts on the Bathurst caribou herd qualitatively described how mining activities might have influenced the herd (Mackenzie et al. 2013): caribou migration routes deflected away from the mines probably due to seeing mining activities or hearing the noises; and skinny caribou or abnormal smells and materials in caribou meat, liver, or the hide linings probably related to changes in caribou forage and quality of water and air. In other words, the potential influences of mining operations on caribou were most likely through altering what caribou can see, hear, smell (e.g., dusts and fine particle matter < 2.5 ?m (PM2.5) in the air, and from acidity in the soil), and taste (e.g., dust on foliage, vegetation composition change). Boulanger et al. (2012) estimated the size of a zone of influence (ZOI) of the Ekati-Diavik mining complex in the Bathurst caribou summer range, using caribou presence dataset. They also explored the mechanisms of ZOI using the spatial distribution of the total suspended particles, which was simulated with an atmospheric transport and dispersion model (Rescan, 2006). While these studies have added to our understanding of the possible impacts of mining operations on caribou, knowledge gaps remain. One outstanding gap is the lack of direct measurements about the caribou relevant environmental changes caused by mining operations. For example, exactly from how far away can caribou clearly see the vehicles driving on a mining road, or the buildings and the elevated waste piles in a camp? From how far away might caribou hear the noise caused by mining operations? To what spatial extent had the dusts and PM2.5 from mining operations influenced the tundra ecosystems? And how the dusts and PM2.5 from mining operations might have influenced caribou forage quality? Potentially these questions can be answered by in-situ measurements and satellite remote sensing. For example, studies have showed that it is possible to remotely sense PM2.5 distribution using twice-daily MODIS data at a spatial resolution of 1 km (Lyapustin et al., 2011; Chudnovsky et al., 2013; Hu et al., 2014). The objective of this study is thus to quantitatively measure these changes around the Ekati Diamond Mine, by means of in-situ surveys and satellite remote sensing. We conducted field surveys at more than 100 sites around the Ekati Diamond Mine during August 14-23, 2015, a collaborative effort of the NWT CIMP project entitled “Satellite Monitoring for Assessing Resource Development’s Impact on Bathurst Caribou (SMART)”, and the Dominion Diamond Ekati Corporation. In this presentation, we will report preliminary results and lessons learned from our first year’s study.
Proxima Diamonds Corp.: exploring for diamonds in the fertile Slave craton.
43rd Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum Abstracts, abstract p. 33.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Prospect - Sancy
Abstract: Proxima Diamonds Corp. is a private Canadian diamond exploration company exploring diamond targets in the heart of the diamond producing region of the Slave Geological Province. The company holds 17 target-rich properties that were selected based on a review of publicly available data, a proprietary kimberlite indicator mineral sample database and a wealth of experience exploring for diamonds in Canada's north. Focused kimberlite indicator mineral (KIM) sampling conducted by Proxima in 2014 identified a potential source area on the Sancy Property, located near the northern boundary of the Ekati Diamond Mine. Follow-up ground geophysical surveys completed over the area in spring 2015 have returned compelling results. Ground gravity, total magnetic field and capacitively coupled resistivity surveys identified a large, new target approximately 300 m from the diamondiferous T-10 kimberlite pipe. On this and other Proxima properties, focused KIM till sampling is defining likely source areas which will be surveyed with ground geophysical methods this winter.
43rd Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum Abstracts, abstract p. 39.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Deposit - Tango
Abstract: Short-wave infrared (SWIR, 1.90-2.36 µm) hyperspectral imagery collected from 171 meters of drill core from the diamondiferous Tango Extension kimberlite using a high spatial resolution imaging system (pixel size: 1.43 x 1.43 µm) was analyzed to create compositional maps that show the distribution of different crustal (dilution) components and different kimberlite types along the drill core. Three types of crustal dilution components were identified in the compositional maps: carbonate, a carbonate-mudstone mixture, and mudstone. Five spectrally distinct types of kimberlite were identified, which differ mainly in their level of hydration and the amount of crustal micro-dilution they contain. Accompanying the compositional maps are depth profiles that provide quantitative abundance information for each compositional component (dilution and kimberlite). These profiles show the abundance of macro-dilution relative to kimberlite and the spatial distribution of the different kimberlite types. Using depth profiles, compositional boundaries along the length of the drill core were identified and compared to the unit boundaries from the visual lithological log. The boundaries identified using the hyperspectral imagery correlate well with the boundaries recorded during visual logging. This study demonstrates that hyperspectral imagery is well suited to the task of mapping the distribution of spectrally distinct kimberlite types, and quantifying kimberlite micro- and macro-dilution by crustal rocks.
43rd Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum Abstracts, abstract p. 43.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Geomorphology
Abstract: During the last glaciation, bedrock was eroded, transported and deposited by the Laurentide Ice Sheet across much of Canada. The complex ice and meltwater processes that resulted in sediment deposition are not completely understood. In the central Slave Craton, Northwest Territories, glacial sediments overly many diamond-bearing kimberlites. Diamond deposits in the Lac de Gras area were discovered in the early 1990s by drift prospecting. To better interpret drift prospecting datasets a more thorough understanding of the detailed glacial history of the area is required. We spent six weeks in the Lac de Gras area in summer 2015. Field mapping was complimented by a number of other techniques to elucidate the glacial history of the area. Enigmatic landforms were examined in detail and pits were dug to examine their sedimentology. Samples of matrix material were collected to compare grain size distribution between different sediment types. Pebble counts were done to consider sediment provenance. We also collected ground-penetrating radar profiles to look for stratified sediments within enigmatic mounds. High-resolution orthophotos and a one metre LiDAR digital elevation model of the area, obtained by Dominion Diamond Ekati Corporation, have also been used to investigate landform genesis and the glacial history of the area. In the Lac de Gras area many meltwater corridors can be identified in the high-resolution imagery. These corridors are typically 300-1500 m wide and form dendritic networks. Between the corridors, sandy till of varying thickness overlies bedrock. Within corridors, glaciofluvial landforms and scoured bedrock are common. Also associated with corridors are many mounds of enigmatic origin. These mounds commonly occur in groups and are typically 20-100 m wide and rise 5-15 m above the surrounding area. They are usually composed of an unstratified to poorly-stratified sandy diamicton containing no clay and minor silt. Matrix grain size distribution and pebble lithology results from some mounds are similar to those of nearby regional till. However, patches of well-stratified sediments, exhibiting laminated silts as well as climbing ripples in sand, do exist on parts of some mounds. GPR data suggests that these patches are discontinuous, and that the majority of mounds are composed largely of sandy diamicton. Variation in the sedimentology of the mounds does not appear to be related to variations in mound morphology. It is likely that the majority of the glaciofluvial sediments in the Lac de Gras area were deposited during the final stages of ice retreat across the area when meltwater volumes were high. We suggest that the corridors were formed by subglacial meltwater flow. This is because glaciofluvial deposition almost exclusively occurs within corridors, very little till is found within corridors and the corridors have an undulating elevation profile in the direction of ice flow. Water must have played a role in the deposition of the well-stratified patches of sediment found on some mounds, however, the mounds may not be solely the product of subglacial meltwater flow. A thorough understanding of sediment transport and depositional processes is critical if kimberlite indicator mineral data is to be accurately interpreted.
43rd Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum Abstracts, abstract p. 47.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Garnet chemistry
Abstract: In diamond exploration, the use of compositional data to identify diamond-related peridotitic xenocrysts has long been a widely used and powerful tool. In contrast, the application of similar methods to eclogitic garnet chemistry remains a challenge. The inability to unequivocally classify certain “eclogitic” garnet compositions as either mantle- or crust-derived implies that a high abundance of lower-crustal garnets will increase diamond-exploration expenditures by introducing a number of “false positives.” Revising existing classification schemes (e.g., Schulze, 2003) to reduce the abundance of “false positives” may, however, increase the number of “false negatives” through the misclassification of mantle-derived garnets as crustal. This study presents new geochemical and petrographical data for garnet and clinopyroxene from 724 kimberlite-hosted, crust- and mantle-derived xenoliths from localities worldwide, with a focus on samples whose lithology is constrained petrographically, rather than single mineral grains from concentrate. Mantle samples are primarily eclogitic and pyroxenitic, as constrained by mineral assemblage and garnet and clinopyroxene mineral chemistry, while crustal samples are dominantly plagioclase-bearing garnet-granulites. For those localities where an established geothermal gradient is available from literature resources, garnet-clinopyroxene pairs are employed in the estimation of pressure-temperature conditions of equilibration through the iterative coupling of the Krogh (1988) geothermometer and the relevant geothermal gradient. Our preliminary results suggest that closure temperatures for Fe-Mg exchange exceed the temperatures of residence of many lower-crustal samples, as geotherm-based calculated pressures of equilibration exceed the apparent stability of plagioclase (see Green and Ringwood, 1972). Comparison of equilibration pressures with sodium contents in garnet for mantle-derived samples (the diamond-facies criterion of Gurney, 1984) shows a positive correlation at localities for which an adequate range of pressures is observed (e.g., the Diavik mine). Other populations, such as mantle eclogitic garnets from Roberts Victor, plot at a much more restricted range of pressures and hence fail to demonstrate this correlation; instead, these samples may reflect the influence of a broader range of bulk-compositions, providing varying amounts of sodium to their constituent garnets. The results presented here demonstrate clearly that garnets from mantle- and crust-derived samples show significant overlap in geochemical character, for example in garnet Ca# vs. Mg# space (discrimination diagram of Schulze, 2003), where approximately 66% of our crust-derived garnet analyses plot in the “mantle” field. This percentage varies among locations. A selection of particularly high-Mg#, low-Ca# garnets derived from crustal, plagioclase-bearing lithologies in this study highlights the potential for crust-mantle confusion, as these garnets have Mg# in-excess of many mantle-derived eclogitic/pyroxenitic garnets. As a consequence, Fe-Mg-Ca-based classifications alone cannot reliably discriminate mantle and crustal garnets. The next step in this project will be to obtain trace element data for the entire sample suite. This will allow us to test the Li-geobarometer of Hanrahan et al. (2009) for eclogites and to search for trace element signatures that can be used as robust indicators of a diamond-facies origin of eclogitic garnets. Trace element data will also be employed in the refinement of the crust/mantle division discussed above.
43rd Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum Abstracts, abstract p. 64.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Deposit - Redemption
Abstract: Surficial sediment (e.g., till) sampling is an effective tool for mineral exploration in the glaciated landscapes of Canada. Dispersal patterns identified through surficial sampling are studied and used to identify their smaller, mineralized bedrock sources. Data compiled from multiple sampling programs, such as those included in the Kimberlite Indicator and Diamond Database (KIDD), can produce misleading dispersal patterns due to variability in sampling and analysis protocols. The accurate delineation of dispersal patterns requires an understanding of the genesis, comparability and distribution of sediment samples on which the dispersal patterns are based. Using an example from a recent study of the South Coppermine indicator mineral train on the Redemption Project, we demonstrate a method for reducing the variability in the data set that utilizes property-scale surficial geology mapping to systematically filter and normalize the data. The surficial geology mapping identified the nature and distribution of sediments, as well as specific till units that have been reworked to differing degrees by a combination of glacial meltwater, modern drainage and periglacial processes, which can affect the concentration of kimberlite indicator minerals (KIMs). A derivative map depicting till sampling suitability based on basal till potential and the level of reworking was used to classify and group samples into subset populations, from which less-favourable samples were filtered. KIM counts in the remaining sample data were then leveled (normalized) according to the thickness of the sampled till unit to reduce the bias produced by higher anomalies common to thin till units. The filtered and normalized data produced a sharper, more accurate KIM dispersal pattern and a new basis for interpreting possible provenance envelopes, from which lower-risk exploration targets can be identified.
43rd Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum Abstracts, abstract p. 65.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Geomorphology
Abstract: The Northwest Territories Geological Survey recently funded a strategic overburden drilling program in the Lac de Gras (NTS 076D) and Alymer Lake (NTS 076C) map areas of the Slave Province, Northwest Territories. This program was designed to help stimulate mineral exploration, and to collect permafrost and geotechnical data required for future infrastructure development. To provide guidance for the drill program and a basis for interpreting the results, we compiled, analyzed and interpreted an unprecedented collection of privately-collected and public data. The data set included extensive LiDAR-derived hillshade models; regional surficial and bedrock geology mapping; and mineralogical, geochemical, grain size and sample description data from surface sediment (till) samples. Our systematic mapping of the LiDAR coverage area resulted in the identification of 649 linear features, including eskers, meltwater channels, moraines, paleo-shorelines and streamlined bedforms, which strengthened understanding of local ice flow histories and patterns of deglaciation. Based on a comprehensive review and re-evaluation of the data, we identified six important trends: (1) samples collected from till blankets have lower indicator mineral counts than those collected from till veneers and thick, hummocky till deposits; (2) indicator mineral counts from glaciofluvial sediments were lower and show more subtle anomalies than those from till; (3) the =0.5 mm size-fraction in the mineralogy data set has ~25-40% higher indicator mineral counts than the >0.5 mm size-fraction; (4) when comparing the analytical results of different size fractions, Cr and La concentrations are higher in the clay-sized fraction, while Ba concentrations are higher in the silt- and clay-sized fraction; (5) anomalous Au concentrations in the northern portion of the study area likely represent a lithological change and subsequent glacial dispersion, rather than significant mineralization; and (6) local variations in pyrope and Cr-diopside counts in the study area may affect interpretations of kimberlite indicator mineral dispersal plumes. We also delineated 60 areas of interest that present unique research opportunities, or represent important data gaps that compromise the understanding of glacial history, mineral dispersal and permafrost conditions within the region.
43rd Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum Abstracts, abstract p. 66.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Deposit - Diavik
Abstract: Since 2003 Diavik Diamond Mines Inc. has been mining diamonds from kimberlite pipes located below the waters of Lac de Gras. Diavik produces 6-7 million carats annually and in 2012 Diavik transitioned to a fully underground mine. Diavik’s 9.2 megawatt award winning wind farm has confirmed Diavik as a leader in cold climate, off grid renewable energy. Diavik recently began construction on its A21 project, which will bring its fourth kimberlite pipe into production in 2018. This presentation will provide an operational update on the amazing Diavik operation.
43rd Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum Abstracts, abstract p. 66.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Ice road
Abstract: The Inuvik to Tuktoyaktuk Highway (ITH) has been an idea for over 50 years. It was only in the past decade that the project gained traction towards becoming a reality. Once constructed, the ITH will be an all-weather link between these two communities in the Mackenzie Delta region of the Northwest Territories. Working collaboratively with our aboriginal partnership company KAVIK-STANTEC in Inuvik, Stantec has completed a variety of tasks ranging from baseline environmental assessment (wildlife, vegetation, and terrain), regulatory support and civil engineering design services. Crews hit the ground in the winter of 2013/2014 and the project is now entering its third and final winter construction season. The project team (designers, constructors and the Owner) contended with several challenges in bringing the project to fruition. Some of these included: • Fast track schedule • Weather constraints • Data refinements • Climate change considerations • Large complexity of the project (requiring collaborative approach) When completed, the ITH will span over 140 km and provide a vital access route for industry and the public. Stantec will discuss the challenges and triumphs in working on this diverse project working in this remote landscape.
43rd Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum Abstracts, abstract p. 68.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Reclamation
Abstract: Reclamation research in the north over the past 30 years has primarily focused on oil and gas and transportation corridor disturbances. Among industries, disturbances caused by infrastructure and transportation corridors are similar. However, each industry has its unique by products that determine which reclamation methods are most appropriate to achieve end land use goals and the relative ease of reclamation. The purpose of this research program is to develop methods to enhance revegetation of disturbed sites at diamond mines in the north, in particular to create soil like substrates on sites where soil has been removed with the use of onsite and commercial materials and to reestablish a diverse native plant community. Reclamation substrates include by products from the diamond mining process like crushed rock, till/lake sediment, processed kimberlite and various combinations of till/lake sediment and processed kimberlite. Greenhouse experiments were also conducted at the University of Alberta to test a range of substrates and amendments with potential to aid reclamation in the field. In 2013 and 2014, research sites were established at Diavik Diamond Mine using the best performing substrates to determine the effect of micro topography, addition of organic matter and erosion control on native grass and forb establishment; effective moss propagation techniques and; effective lichen propagation methods. Preliminary results and observations from completed greenhouse experiments and the first two growing seasons will be discussed. This research directly enhances knowledge and sustainability of northern regions. It will lead to recommendations for enhanced reclamation protocols to be used by industry and government in the north.
43rd Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum Abstracts, abstract p. 69.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Deposit - Snap Lake, Ekati
Abstract: Kimberlites are volcanic ultra-potassic rocks present mostly in cratonic settings and some are diamond bearing. Kimberlite magma is derived from the upper mantle, however, its primary composition is still unknown. Assimilation of mantle and crustal material, loss of volatiles during eruption and high degree of alteration all result in variable compositions of kimberlite magma reaching the surface. Studies have shown that kimberlitic fluid has a significant effect on the quality and preservation of diamonds carried to the surface. By better understanding the primary composition of kimberlites, and the processes that drive kimberlite eruption, we can attempt to gain some diagnostic knowledge of the economic viability of a particular kimberlite. Apatite is a common mineral in kimberlite, which composition is sensitive to volatiles and the presence of magmatic fluid. This study will look at the variation of apatite in kimberlites, how different geology indicates their different fluid histories, and the potential for using apatite as an indicator of fluid content and composition in kimberlite magma. The study uses polished sections from different kimberlite lithologies within the Snap Lake kimberlite and from six Ekati Mine kimberlites. Apatite grains were examined using scanning electron microscope (back scatter imaging) and composition was obtained with wavelength-dispersive spectroscopy mode of electron-microprobe analyzes. Snap Lake is a single dyke of coherent kimberlite facies. The dyke intruded in a near-horizontal orientation, and has an average vertical thickness of 2.5 m. There is significant incorporation of crustal material, and the kimberlite is highly altered, possibly a result of interaction with abundant xenoliths. The studied Ekati kimberlites include: two coherent kimberlites - Grizzly and Leslie, and four kimberlites with resedimented volcaniclastic kimberlite facies – Misery, Koala, Panda, and Beartooth. These kimberlites show significant variations in the apatite crystallizing from the melts. At Snap Lake apatite occurs late, interstitially in the groundmass. These anhedral apatites appear to have no zonation, and crystallize around microphenocrysts of olivine and phlogopite. There is also a late component of apatite, possibly associated with carbonate veins that fracture olivine macrocrysts. Sub- to euhedral apatite grains (max 50 µm) crystalize in a carbonate host within a fracture or crack in olivine macrocrysts. In the Ekati kimberlites, apatite is extremely rare to absent in Misery, Panda, and Beartooth kimberlites, but abundant in Grizzly, Koala, and Leslie. Leslie has plenty of euhedral zoned and unzoned apatite associated with monticellite set in carbonate matrix. Grizzly has abundant small (~10 µm) anhedral apatite. Koala contains both anhedral and euhedral apatite, some of which is zoned. The presentation will report the initial results of this study and possible applications for the behavior of volatiles in the studied kimberlite magmas and examine their relationship with the features of the diamond population.
43rd Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum Abstracts, abstract p. 76.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Deposit - Ekati
Abstract: The Ekati Diamond Mine is a surface and underground diamond mine operated by Dominion Diamond Ekati Corporation. It is located near the Lac de Gras Northwest Territories, Canada approximately 300 km north of Yellowknife and roughly 200 km south of the Arctic Circle. The Ekati Long Lake Containment Facility (LLCF) is a five celled containment area for storage of processed kimberlite generated during the processing and extraction of diamonds from kimberlite ore. The LLCF has been in operation since 1998 and deposition of processed kimberlite has occurred within the three northern cells with the remaining two cells being used for water quality “polishing” to help meet discharge criteria. The Interim Closure and Reclamation Plan for Ekati outlines a plan to cover the LLCF kimberlite surface with a combination of rock and vegetation. The cover system looks to fulfill the closure objective of physically stabilizing the processed kimberlite and creating a landscape safe for wildlife and human use. Cell B of the LLCF has reached its capacity and is being used as a reclamation research area. The purpose of the reclamation research is to identify a long term cover design that can be expanded to the whole LLCF. A winter drilling investigation in Cell B of the LLCF was undertaken in 2013. The objective of the investigation was to characterize the processed kimberlite and its porewater chemistry. Results from the investigation indicated that permafrost has aggraded into the kimberlite and surface zone pore water concentrations were higher when compared to process plant discharge. In fall of 2013 various areas of Cell B were seeded with annual and perennial vegetation ground covers. Further seeding of Cell B was completed in the summer of 2014. Seed from a variety of sources that includes locally harvested and commercially available native plants and farm crops was applied at different rates using different seeding techniques. In the winter of 2013 rock was placed in various configurations within the seeded areas to evaluate its effects on vegetation growth and erosion control. A total of 25 hectares has been seeded in Cell B since the fall of 2013 and the results of initial monitoring are positive regarding establishment of long term ground cover on the kimberlite.
43rd Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum Abstracts, abstract p. 77.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Deposit - Ekati
Abstract: The Ekati Waste Rock Storage Piles (WRSA) water balance model was developed in Goldsim as a module designed to support water quality estimates. The water balance module accounts for direct precipitation, snowmelt, seepage, runoff, and delays to flow within the WRSA. As the Ekati Mine is located within a climate zone of continuous permafrost, a portion of the water infiltrating the WRSA’s becomes trapped within the waste rock as ice when it encounters sub-freezing internal temperatures. Seepage leaching from the WRSAs is thus limited to the outer surface of the WRSAs (active layer) where water produced by melting of seasonal surficial ice and snow. The active layer was modeled by detaining all water in the WRSA from October to the end of June. After June the water was released from the layer using a delay function, which is described below. The model divides seepage and runoff into three physically-based flow paths. ? The primary flow path is of water that falls infiltrates vertically through the waste rock until it encounters an impermeable lens of ice-saturate rock, and travels horizontally, to ultimately emerge at the toe of the WRSAs. ? The secondary flow path is water that falls on the outer slopes of the WRSAs and seeps under the outer slopes to the toe. ? The third flow path is also of water that falls on the outer slopes of the WRSAs and travels along the surface of the WRSA to the toe as runoff. Water losses were accounted at the surface of the pile prior to infiltration and within the pile as follows; ? water losses from evaporation is represented by a runoff coefficients; and ? water loss to the pile is modeled based on a percentage of volume of waste rock. As each WRSA is saturation flows exiting the pile increase. Flat infiltration is the slowest flow path and creates base flows that maintain flows out of the WRSAs during late summer and early winter periods. The slopes seepage is released more slowly over several days or weeks. While slopes runoff is the fastest flow path creating storm peaks during rainfall events. Results of the total WRSA discharge are a constant slow outflow at the toe with small increases due to precipitation events and the freshet, which is consistent with observations of waste rock drainage. Flows are attenuated using a time delay, which was simulated for each flow path using an Erlang function. The Erlang function refers to a two-parameter Gaussian distribution, where the shape parameter n is an integer. Hydrologically, the parameter n corresponds to the number of hypothetical linear reservoirs (Nash 1957). For the slopes runoff, n = 1 is assumed, which gives an exponential distribution. For the flats infiltration and slope seepage n = 2 is assumed, which gives a typical unit hydrograph shape with a delayed peak flow. The value of the lag parameter for each component was determined through model calibration.
43rd Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum Abstracts, abstract p. 86.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Geochemistry
Abstract: The Central Mackenzie Valley (CMV) area of the Northwest Territories (NWT) comprises a Phanerozoic sedimentary basin that lies between the western margin of the Slave craton and the Cordillera. Although the region is considerably outside the bounds of the exposed Slave craton, both LITHOPROBE and more recent regional-scale surface wave studies (e.g., Priestley and McKenzie, 2006) indicate the likely presence of lithospheric mantle extending into the diamond stability field. Recent work conducted by Olivut Resources Ltd. led to the discovery of 29 kimberlites in the CMV. However, the indicator mineral chemistry of discovered kimberlites does not appear to be a good match (www.olivut.ca) with those during regional till and stream sediment sampling by the Geologic Survey of Canada (GSC) and Northwest Territories Geologic Survey (NTGS) in August 2003 and July 2005. We present new geochemical data on the regional indicator minerals with the aim of obtaining geotherm and depth of mantle sampling constraints on those indicator minerals discovered to date. A statistical evaluation of the data will compare the similarities to indicator mineral chemistry with parts of the Slave craton to evaluate whether the CMV indicators may ultimately be derived from that region. In total 3600 kimberlite indicator mineral grains were picked from the 0.25-2.0 mm size fractions. Peridotitic garnet grains dominate (46%), followed by magnesium ilmenite (26%), with decreasing individual proportions >15% of chromite, low-chrome diopside, olivine, chrome-diopside and eclogitic garnet. A sub-sample of these grains (3143) were analysed by EPMA. Garnet grains classify (after Grütter et al., 2004) as 1015 (62.1%) G9, 270 (16.5%) G11, 113 (6.9%) G10, 103 (6.3%) G12, 57 (3.5%) G1, 46 (2.8%) G10D, and the remaining 31 (1.9%) as G0, G3, G3D, G4, and G5. A sub-set of garnet grains (~700) were selected for LA-ICP-MS trace element analysis. Of the grains selected 74% G9, 14% G10 (and G10D), and 8% G11, with only 4% G12 and G0 (Grütter et al., 2004). Nickel concentrations from these grains range from 2.6-168.2 ppm, with the majority (>80%) between 20-100 ppm, yielding TNi (Canil, 1999) values ranging from 643-1348°C, with the majority between ~1000-1200°C. Using a central Slave craton geothermal gradient (Hasterok and Chapman, 2011), equilibration pressures for these garnet grains range from 20-80 kbars with the majority between 40-60 kbars (120-185 km). Preliminary analysis has 581 (81%) of the erupted peridotitic mantle garnet grains plotting within the diamond stability field (Kennedy and Kennedy, 1976). Of the 128 clinopyroxene grains analysed, only a few represent garnet peridotite (lherzolite) facies KIM clinopyroxene grains following compositional screening. Thermobarometry of these grains (Nimis and Taylor, 2000), assuming they were all derived from the same lithospheric section, yields P-T arrays identical to the central Slave geotherm that was 220 km thick at the time of eruption. These results are encouraging for diamond exploration. We thank Overburden Drilling Management Ltd. for grain picking and recovery of the small diamond, SGS Lakefield Research for mounting grains, and the GSC for probing of the grains.
43rd Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum Abstracts, abstract p. 93.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Deposit - Gahcho Kue
Abstract: Construction of the De Beers Gahcho Kué Mine required that a portion of Kennady Lake be dewatered to provide access to kimberlite pipes on the lakebed. The Construction Water Management Plan considered an initial dewatering volume of approximately 18.7 Mm3, to be discharged to two downstream waterbodies (Lake N11 and Kennady Lake Area 8). This dewatering was originally planned to occur during the open water season, after the spring freshet peak. The project received its Type A Water Licence from the Mackenzie Valley Land and Water Board on September 24, 2014, and before that date it had become apparent that winter dewatering would be required to prevent a significant delay in the project development. Potential adverse impacts related to winter dewatering were identified and were primarily related to aufeis development. Aufeis is defined as an ice deposit, formed by vertical growth of layers as thin flows of water are exposed to freezing temperatures. These may have adverse effects on erosion, fish and fish habitat. Action levels for winter dewatering were developed, based on site-specific hydrological characteristics, and were included in the Aquatic Effects Monitoring Program for the Mine. This allowed field measurements to be compared to action levels during the dewatering program. Field measurements included telemetry to monitor lake hydrostatic water surface elevations, as well as periodic visits to the receiving lake outlets and downstream areas to examine ice and flow conditions. Winter dewatering commenced on December 20, 2014, with pumping to Kennady Lake Area 8. Pumping was suspended on January 4, 2015, as the action level for that location was approached. Approximately 779,000 m3 of water was released over 16 days. Dewatering discharges were then pumped to Lake N11, with pumping commencing on February 1, 2015 and continuing through the winter period, as the action level for that location was not exceeded. Over the 103 day period through May 14, 2015, approximately 6,021,000 m3 of water was released. A total of 6,800,000 m3 of water was discharged from Kennady Lake over the winter dewatering period, or about 36% of the planned initial dewatering volume. Winter and subsequent open-water season reconnaissance did not identify any adverse effects due to winter dewatering. This presentation will discuss winter dewatering risks, action level development, field program observations, and factors contributing to the overall success of the program.
43rd Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum Abstracts, abstract p. 102.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Hyperspectral imagery
Abstract: The collection and analysis of kimberlite indicator minerals from heavy mineral concentrates is an integral part of the diamond exploration process. However, surficial sampling programs are often restricted by time-consuming mineral collection, processing, and analysis procedures. To facilitate the development of a technique that can simplify and accelerate the identification and classification of kimberlite indicator minerals, we explored the usage of hyperspectral imagery, which is based on the analysis of reflected radiation in the visible and infrared parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. The investigation was focused on the identification of indicator garnets. Hyperspectral imagery was collected directly from heavy mineral concentrates, and these images were de-noised and processed to isolate the spectral absorption features relating to mineral composition. These images were then analyzed to identify individual garnets. This portion of the analysis was complemented by the results of 1000+ high-resolution spectra collected from well-characterized crust- and mantle-derived garnets to ensure that the garnets in the heavy mineral concentrates were accurately identified. Preliminary results indicate that garnets can be readily distinguished from other concentrate minerals using hyperspectral imagery, and that the garnets can also be compositionally classified. The compositional classification allows crust- and mantle-derived garnets to be distinguished accurately, while providing concentration information about certain transition elements, like chromium and titanium. In addition to the garnet analysis, hyperspectral imagery was also used to identify millimeter-sized fragments of kimberlite (kimberlite micro-float) in heavy mineral concentrates and unprocessed sediment samples. Preliminary results indicate that kimberlite micro-float can be readily distinguished from other rock and mineral fragments due to its distinct spectrum. Pending additional testing, analytical techniques using hyperspectral imagery may serve as an alternative to the costly and time-consuming indicator mineral identification methods currently being used.
43rd Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum Abstracts, abstract p. 108.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Diamond genesis
Abstract: Diamonds from the Ekati and Diavik mines have provided a wealth of information on diamond forming processes beneath the Slave craton. Fluid-rich “fibrous” diamonds trap some of the fluid from which the diamond is growing and hence provide a unique means to characterize directly the fluids that percolate through the deep continental lithospheric mantle. On a world-wide basis, Ekatic and Diavik fluid-rich diamonds trap an anomalously high proportion of fuids that are “salty” or high saline in composition, with high Na and Cl contents. The origin of these “salty” fluids has been something of a mystery. Here we show the first clear chemical evolutionary trend identifying saline fluids as parental to silicic and carbonatitic deep mantle melts, in diamonds from the Northwest Territories, Canada. Fluid-rock interaction along with in-situ melting cause compositional transitions, as the saline fluids traverse mixed peridotite-eclogite lithosphere. Moreover, the chemistry of the parental saline fluids - especially their Sr isotopic compositions - and the timing of host diamond formation suggest a subducting Mesozoic plate under western North America to be the source of the fluids. Our results imply a strong association between subduction, mantle metasomatism and fluid-rich diamond formation, emphasizing the importance of subduction-derived fluids in impacting the composition of the deep lithospheric mantle
43rd Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum Abstracts, abstract p. 108.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Deposit - Diavik
Abstract: Since 2003 Diavik Diamond Mines Inc. has been mining diamonds from kimberlite pipes located below the waters of Lac de Gras. Monitoring and mitigating our impact on the local environment has been a core value at Diavik since our initial discovery. The mine was designed, and is operated, in a manner to reduce our overall environmental footprint and ultimately allow for a safe and efficient closure. A core team of scientists and technicians are responsible for monitoring the air, water, wildlife and regulatory compliance at the mine site. This presentation will focus on the work of this dedicated team.
43rd Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum Abstracts, abstract p. 109.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Deposit - Kennady North
Abstract: The Kennady North Property, wholly owned by Kennady Diamonds Inc. (KDI) is located 300 km northeast of Yellowknife adjacent to the DeBeers/Mountain Province Gahcho Kué mine site. Exploration on the property dates back to the early 90’s, during which time several kimberlites were discovered. Since 2012 Kennady Diamonds has completed a number of geophysical, hand and RC till sampling and diamond drill programs. In 2015, KDI completed a large diameter reverse circulation drill program to bulk sample the southern lobe of the Kelvin kimberlite. Following the RC program, diamond drilling and ground geophysical surveys continued in the Kelvin-Faraday Corridor (KFC) and at various exploration targets on the property including the MZ Dyke and Doyle Sill. The field season started in January with the completion of the Kelvin camp and the construction of the RC drill icepad on Kelvin Lake. The pad and a seasonal spur road off the Gahcho Kue seasonal road were completed to coincide with the opening of the Tibbit-Contwoyto winter road and facilitated the mobilization of two large diameter RC rigs operated by Midnight Sun Drilling Inc. to the property. A total of 446 tonnes of the Kelvin kimberlite were obtained via RC drilling between February 19 and April 2. The bulk sample was processed via DMS at the Saskatchewan Research Council in Saskatoon. One diamond drill commenced drilling prior to the RC program and two other drills commenced on the heels of the RC program. A total of 31,000 meters of NQ and HQ core have been drilled during 2015 to the end of October. Drilling at Kelvin has focused on geotechnical and related environmental baseline work as well as further delineation of the pipe-like body with the aim of generating a NI43-101 compliant resource in early 2016. Diamond drilling at the Faraday group of kimberlites delineated the Faraday 1 and Faraday 2 kimberlites. These pipe-like bodies share a similar pipe-like structure and internal geology to the Kelvin kimberlite. Aurora conducted 8848 stations of ground gravity and 521.32 line-kilometers of OhmmapperTM capacitively coupled resistivity in the KFC, MZ dyke, and Doyle Sill during March and April. A 87 line-kilometer bubble seismic survey over the Kelvin, Faraday and MZ complexes was conducted in September. Kennady Diamond Inc. is very encouraged by the exploration results to date and anticipates a successful and exciting 2016.
43rd Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum Abstracts, abstract p. 110.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Deposit - Jay
Abstract: The Ekati property is located above an eastward-dipping Archean suture in the central part of the Slave Structural Province of the Canadian Shield. The bedrock geology comprises supracrustal rocks (metamorphosed greywacke-mudstone turbidites) of the Neoarchean post-Yellowknife Supergroup that are intruded by syn to post-tectonic plutons, made up predominantly of granite, granodiorite, and tonalite. In addition, five mafic Proterozoic dyke swarms, ranging in age from ca. 2.23 to 1.27 Ga, intrude the area. The area is intersected by several mafic dykes, belonging mainly to the Malley, MacKenzie, and Lac de Gras dyke swarms. To date, approximately 150 kimberlites have been discovered at Ekati ranging in age from ca. 45 to 75 Ma, intruding Archean metasediments and granitoids of the Salve Craton. In addition to the 150 kimberlites on the Ekati property, more than 240 confirmed kimberlites have been discovered to date in the region known as the Lac de Gras kimberlite field. The kimberlites represent the only evidence for Phanerozoic igneous activity within the area. Kimberlites on the Ekati property show an apparent bias in the type of host rock they intrude and are commonly associated with faults or dykes of various orientations. The Jay kimberlite pipe is located in the southeastern quadrant of the Ekati property. It is approximately 25 km southeast of the Koala cluster (including Panda, Koala, Koala North and Beartooth kimberlite pipes), and 7 km north-northeast of the Misery Main pipe. Based on available geological data consisting of geophysical surveys, geological maps and borehole data, the Jay kimberlite pipe appears to be hosted within post- Yellowknife Supergroup granitic rocks, ranging from granite to granodiorite in composition. It is interpreted to be emplaced along a regional lithological contact between granitoid rocks and Yellowknife Supergroup metasedimentary rocks that were covered by a now eroded veneer of poorly consolidated muddy sediments. A diabase dyke trending approximately east-west occurs to the north of the Jay kimberlite pipe. Despite the available data, geological and structural settings of the Jay host rocks were still not well understood. This work represents the first comprehensive geological interpretation of the host rocks within the Jay pipe setting. The proposed interpretation will be based on the following: • a detailed review, compilation, and interpretation of previously published geological work in the area; • interpretation of high-resolution light detection and ranging (LiDAR) data; • high-resolution orthophotos and airborne geophysical data; • geological data from delineation and geotechnical boreholes drilled between 2005 and 2007, and the recent 2014 and 2015 drilling programs at the Jay pipe area. An implicit modelling approach has been used to develop a three dimensional geological and structural model of the Jay pipe host rocks based on the preliminary interpretation. Ongoing studies aim to decode the geological and structural controls on the Jay kimberlite emplacement, along with its relationship with the nearby Misery kimberlite cluster.
Abstract: Two experimental waste-rock piles (test piles), each 15 m in height × 60 m × 50 m, were constructed at the Diavik diamond mine in Northern Canada to study the behavior of low-sulfide content waste rock, with a similarly low acid-neutralization potential, in a continuous permafrost region. One test pile with an average of 0.035 wt.% S (<50 mm fraction; referred to as Type I) and a second test pile with an average of 0.053 wt.% S (<50 mm fraction; referred to as Type III) were constructed in 2006. The average carbon content in the <50 mm fraction of waste rock in the Type I test pile was 0.031 wt.% as C and in the Type III test pile was 0.030 wt.% as C. The NP:AP ratio, based on the arithmetic mean of particle-size weighted NP and AP values, for the Type I test pile was 12.2, suggesting this test pile was non-acid generating and for the Type III test pile was 2.2, suggesting an uncertain acid-generating potential. The Type I test pile maintained near-neutral pH for the 4-year duration of the study. Sulfate and dissolved metal concentrations were low, with the exception of Ni, Zn, Cd, and Co in the fourth year following construction. The pore water in the Type III test pile contained higher concentrations of SO42? and dissolved metals, with a decrease in pH to <4.7 and an annual depletion of alkalinity. Maximum concentrations of dissolved metals (20 mg L?1 Ni, 2.3 mg L?1 Cu, 3.7 mg L?1 Zn, 35 ?g L?1 Cd, and 3.8 mg L?1 Co) corresponded to decreases in flow rate, which were observed at the end of each field season when the contribution of the total outflow from the central portion of the test pile was greatest. Bacteria were present each year in spite of annual freeze/thaw cycles. The microbial community within the Type I test pile included a population of neutrophilic S-oxidizing bacteria. Each year, changes in the water quality of the Type III test-pile effluent were accompanied by changes in the microbial populations. Populations of acidophilic S-oxidizing bacteria and Fe-oxidizing bacteria became more abundant as the pH decreased and internal test pile temperatures increased. Irrespective of the cold-climate conditions and low S content of the waste rock, the geochemical and microbiological results of this study are consistent with other acid mine drainage studies; indicating that a series of mineral dissolution-precipitation reactions controls pH and metal mobility, and transport is controlled by matrix-dominated flow and internal temperatures.
Abstract: Canada is host to at least six separate cratons that comprise a significant proportion of its crustal extent. Of these cratons, we possess knowledge of the cratonic lithospheric roots beneath only the Slave craton and, to a lesser extent, the Superior craton, despite the discovery of many new diamond-bearing kimberlites in Canada's North. Here we present the first age, composition and geothermal information for kimberlite-borne peridotite xenoliths from two localities within the central Rae craton: Pelly Bay and Repulse Bay. Our aim is to investigate the nature and evolution of the deep lithosphere in these regions and to examine how events recorded in the mantle may or may not correlate with the complex history of crustal evolution across the craton. Peridotite xenoliths are commonly altered by secondary processes including serpentinization, silicification and carbonation, which have variably affected the major element compositions. These secondary processes, as well as mantle metasomatism recorded in pristine silicate minerals, however, did not significantly modify the relative compositions of platinum-group elements (PGE) and Os isotope ratios in the majority of our samples from Pelly Bay and Repulse Bay, as indicated by the generally high absolute PGE concentrations and mantle-like melt-depleted PGE patterns. The observed PGE signatures are consistent with the low bulk Al2O3 contents (mostly lower than 2.5%) of the peridotites, as well as the compositions of the silicate and oxide minerals. Based on PGE patterns and Os model ages, the peridotites from both localities can be categorized into three age groups: Archean (3.0-2.6 Ga overall; 2.8-2.6 Ga for Pelly Bay and 3.0-2.7 Ga for Repulse Bay), Paleoproterozoic (2.1-1.7 Ga), and “Recent” (<1 Ga, with model ages similar to the ca. 546 Ma kimberlite eruption age). The Archean group provides the first direct evidence of depleted Archean lithospheric mantle forming coevally with the overlying Archean crustal basement, indicating cratonization of the Rae during the Archean. The subtle difference in Os model ages between Pelly Bay and Repulse Bay coincides with the age difference between crustal basement rocks beneath these two areas, supporting the suggestion that the Rae craton was assembled by collision of separate two Archean blocks at 2.7-2.6 Ga. The Paleoproterozoic peridotites are interpreted to represent newly formed lithospheric mantle, most likely associated with regional-scale underplating during the 1.77-1.70 Ga Kivalliq-Nueltin event via removal of the lower portion of Archean lithospheric mantle followed by replacement with juvenile Paleoproterozoic lithospheric mantle. The existence of multiple age clusters in the lithosphere at each locality is consistent with the observation of present-day seismic lithospheric discontinuities (0540 and 0545) that indicate two or more layers of fossil lithospheric mantle fabric beneath this region. Our data define a shallow mantle lithosphere layer dominated by Archean depletion ages underlain by a layer of mixed Archean and Paleoproterozoic ages. This lithospheric mantle structure is probably a response to complex tectonic displacement of portions of the lithospheric mantle during Paleoproterozoic orogeny/underplating. The best equilibrated Archean and Paleoproterozoic peridotites at both Pelly Bay and Repulse Bay define a typical cratonic geotherm at the time of kimberlite eruption, with a ?200 km thick lithospheric root extending well into the diamond stability field, in keeping with the diamondiferous nature of the kimberlites. Such thick lithosphere remains in place to the present day as suggested by seismic and magnetotelluric studies (0540, 0545 and 0550). The metasomatically disturbed peridotites in the Rae lithospheric mantle, yielding model ages indistinguishable from kimberlite eruption, may represent parts of the Rae craton mantle root that show anomalous magnetotelluric signatures.
Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, Vol. 171, 15p.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Deposit - Diavik
Abstract: Fibrous diamonds are often interpreted as direct precipitates of primary carbonate-bearing fluids in the lithospheric mantle, sourced directly from common reservoirs of “mantle” carbon and nitrogen. Here we have examined fibrous growth layers in five diamonds (as three rims or “coats” and two whole-crystal cuboids) from the Diavik Diamond Mine, Canada, using in situ C- and N-isotope and N-abundance measurements to investigate the origin and evolution of their parental fluids, and in particular, to test for isotopic variability within a suite of fibrous diamonds. High-resolution growth structure information was gleaned from cathodoluminescence (CL) imaging and, in combination with the isotopic data, was used to assess the nature of the transition from gem to fibrous growth in the coated diamonds. The two cuboids are characterized by fine concentric bands of fibrous and/or milky opaque diamond, with one sample (S1719) having intermittent gem-like growth layers that are transparent and colourless. The three coated diamonds comprise octahedral gem cores mantled by massive or weakly zoned fibrous rims, with sharp and well-defined gem-fibrous boundaries. For the two cuboid samples, ? 13C and ? 15N values were ?7.7 to ?3.2 ‰ (mean ?6.3 ± 1.3 ‰; 1 SD; n = 84) and ?5.6 to ?2.1 ‰ (mean ?4.0 ± 0.8 ‰; 1 SD; n = 48), respectively. The three fibrous rims have combined ? 13C values of ?8.3 to ?4.8 ‰ (mean ?6.9 ± 0.7 ‰; 1 SD; n = 113) and ? 15N values of ?3.8 to ?1.9 ‰ (mean ?2.7 ± 0.4 ‰; 1 SD; n = 43). N-abundances of the combined cuboid-fibrous rim dataset range from 339 to 1714 at. ppm. The gem cores have ? 13C and ? 15N values of ?5.4 to ?3.5 ‰ and ?17.7 to +4.5 ‰, respectively, and N-abundances of 480 to 1699 at. ppm. Broadly uniform C- and N-isotope compositions were observed in each of the gem cores (variations of ~<1 ‰ for carbon and ~<3 ‰ for nitrogen). This limited C- and N- isotope variability implies that the gem cores formed from separate pulses of fluid that remained isotopically uniform throughout the duration of growth. Significant isotopic and abundance differences were observed between the gem and fibrous growth zones, including in one detailed isotopic profile ? 13C and ? 15N offsets of ~?2.4 and ~?3.7 ‰, respectively, and a ~230 at. ppm increase in N-abundance. Combined with the well-defined gem-fibrous boundaries in plane light and CL, these sharp isotopic differences indicate separate parental fluid histories. Notably, in the combined fibrous diamond dataset prominent C- and N-isotope differences between the whole-crystal cuboid and fibrous rim data were observed, including a consistent ~1.3 ‰ offset in ? 15N values between the two growth types. This bimodal N-isotope distribution is interpreted as formation from separate parental fluids, associated with distinct nitrogen sources. The bimodal N-isotope distribution could also be explained by differences in N-speciation between the respective parental fluids, which would largely be controlled by the oxidation state of the fibrous rim and cuboid growth environments (i.e., N2 vs. NH4 + or NH3). We also note that this C- and N-isotope variability could indicate temporal changes to the source(s) of the respective parental fluids, such that each stage of fibrous diamond growth reflects the emplacement of separate pulses of proto-kimberlitic fluid—from distinct carbon and nitrogen sources, and/or with varying N-species—into the lithospheric mantle.
Bussweiler, Y., Pearson, D.G., Luth, R.W., Kjarsgaard, B.A., Stachel, T.
The evolution of calcite-bearing kimberlite by rock-melt reaction during ascent - evidence from polymineralic inclusions within Cr- diopside and Cr-pyrope megacrysts from Lac de Gras kimberlites, Northwest Territories, Canada.
GAC MAC Meeting Special Session SS11: Cratons, kimberlites and diamonds., abstract 1/4p.
Geochemistry, Exploration, Environment, Analysis, Vol. 16, pp. 62-84.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Kimberlite - Triple B mentioned
Abstract: In this study, results by direct portable XRF (‘pXRF’) on unsieved till samples were compared with those by established laboratory methods (aqua regia or fusion ICP-MS and ICP-ES) on the <0.063-mm fraction to determine if the application of direct pXRF in the field would serve as an acceptable guide for immediate follow-up work. Four test sites in Canada were chosen: the Halfmile Lake Cu-Pb-Zn VMS deposit; the intrusion-hosted W-Mo Sisson deposit; a Pb-Zn Mississippi Valley-type (MVT) deposit in the Pine Point district; and the Triple B kimberlite. Unsieved till samples from the GSC archive collection were used for this study and included samples from background areas, immediately overlying, and at various distances down-ice of each deposit. Ziploc® and Whirl-Pak® bags that were used to contain the samples in the field were tested for their properties of X-ray attenuation and contamination. In general, the performance of pXRF in the four test areas was very good where concentrations of elements of interest (indicator or pathfinder elements) were substantially above detection limits by this technique (in the low ppm range for many elements). The following elements, shown to be useful indicator elements (important constituents of the ore/commodity) or pathfinder elements (those associated with the commodity elements) by the established methodology, showed similar patterns by pXRF on the unsieved material: Zn, Cu, Pb, and As at Halfmile Lake; W, Mo, Cu, Zn, Pb, and As at the Sisson deposit; Zn, Pb, and Fe at Pine Point; and Ca, Sr, Cr, and Ni at Triple B. Pathfinder elements whose concentrations were too low for determination by pXRF include: Ag and Sb at Halfmile Lake; Ag and Cd at Sisson; Cd, S, and Se at Pine Point; and Co, Mg, P, U, and Th at Triple B. The high background for Bi by pXRF, equivalent to c. 50?ppm, and its noisy signal precluded its use at Halfmile Lake and Sisson. Elements which tended to show poor precision (three analyses each sample) by pXRF in some samples due to sample heterogeneity include Sn, V, and W. Mercury was erroneously reported for the majority of samples in the low ppm range by pXRF whereas its concentration in fact was in the low ppb range. Several Pb-, Zn- (c. 1% Pb, Zn) and Fe-rich (up to 16% Fe) samples demonstrated spectral interferences by: Pb on As, Th and Se; Zn on Cu; and Fe on Co. Results for six till samples analysed in Ziploc® and Whirl-Pak® bags showed that Ziploc® absorbs fewer low-energy photons and hence is preferable for determining light elements such as Si, K and Ca.
Abstract: First predictions of the macrodiamond grade of newly discovered kimberlites are commonly obtained using size frequency distributions of microdiamonds. The success of this approach suggests a common origin of microdiamonds and macrodiamonds, an implication not yet conclusively established or disproved. In contrast to previous comparative studies on microdiamonds and macrodiamonds from single deposits, here all diamonds analyzed originate from the same microdiamond samples (558 diamonds, ranging from 0.212 to 3.35 mm). The diamonds were analyzed for their carbon isotope compositions and nitrogen characteristics, and, based on this dataset, statistical comparisons were conducted across the size range to assess cogenesis. As a whole, the Misery diamond suite shows high nitrogen contents (median = 850 at. ppm), a bimodal distribution in time-averaged mantle residence temperatures (two distinct subpopulations in mantle residence temperatures: ?1,125° and ?1,175°C), a high degree of platelet degradation, and ?13C compositions that are isotopically slightly heavier (median = ?4.4‰) than the global median. Statistical comparisons of the various size classes indicate the presence of subtly different subpopulations at Misery; however, the nature and magnitude of these geochemical differences are very small in the context of the global diamond database and are viewed as petrogenetically insignificant. The general geochemical similarity of diamonds from different size fractions at Misery reinforces the use of size-frequency analysis to predict diamond grade in kimberlite diamond deposits.
GAC MAC Meeting Special Session SS11: Cratons, kimberlites and diamonds., abstract 1/4p.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Diamond indicators
Abstract: The Central Mackenzie Valley (CMV) area of the Northwest Territories (NWT) comprises a Phanerozoic sedimentary basin that lies between the western margin of the Slave craton and the Cordillera. Although the region is considerably outside the bounds of the exposed Slave craton, both LITHOPROBE and more recent regional-scale surface wave studies (e.g., Priestley and McKenzie, 2006) indicate the likely presence of lithospheric mantle extending into the diamond stability field. Recent work conducted by Olivut Resources Ltd. led to the discovery of 29 kimberlites in the CMV. However, the indicator mineral chemistry of discovered kimberlites does not appear to be a good match (www.olivut.ca) with those during regional till and stream sediment sampling by the Geologic Survey of Canada (GSC) and Northwest Territories Geologic Survey (NTGS) in August 2003 and July 2005. We present new geochemical data on the regional indicator minerals with the aim of obtaining geotherm and depth of mantle sampling constraints on those indicator minerals discovered to date. A statistical evaluation of the data will compare the similarities to indicator mineral chemistry with parts of the Slave craton to evaluate whether the CMV indicators may ultimately be derived from that region. In total 3600 kimberlite indicator mineral grains were picked from the 0.25-2.0 mm size fractions. Peridotitic garnet grains dominate (46%), followed by magnesium ilmenite (26%), with decreasing individual proportions >15% of chromite, low-chrome diopside, olivine, chrome-diopside and eclogitic garnet. A sub-sample of these grains (3143) were analysed by EPMA. Garnet grains classify (after Grütter et al., 2004) as 1015 (62.1%) G9, 270 (16.5%) G11, 113 (6.9%) G10, 103 (6.3%) G12, 57 (3.5%) G1, 46 (2.8%) G10D, and the remaining 31 (1.9%) as G0, G3, G3D, G4, and G5. A sub-set of garnet grains (~700) were selected for LA-ICP-MS trace element analysis. Of the grains selected 74% G9, 14% G10 (and G10D), and 8% G11, with only 4% G12 and G0 (Grütter et al., 2004). Nickel concentrations from these grains range from 2.6-168.2 ppm, with the majority (>80%) between 20-100 ppm, yielding TNi (Canil, 1999) values ranging from 643-1348°C, with the majority between ~1000-1200°C. Using a central Slave craton geothermal gradient (Hasterok and Chapman, 2011), equilibration pressures for these garnet grains range from 20-80 kbars with the majority between 40-60 kbars (120-185 km). Preliminary analysis has 581 (81%) of the erupted peridotitic mantle garnet grains plotting within the diamond stability field (Kennedy and Kennedy, 1976). Of the 128 clinopyroxene grains analysed, only a few represent garnet peridotite (lherzolite) facies KIM clinopyroxene grains following compositional screening. Thermobarometry of these grains (Nimis and Taylor, 2000), assuming they were all derived from the same lithospheric section, yields P-T arrays identical to the central Slave geotherm that was 220 km thick at the time of eruption. These results are encouraging for diamond exploration. We thank Overburden Drilling Management Ltd. for grain picking and recovery of the small diamond, SGS Lakefield Research for mounting grains, and the GSC for probing of the grains.
Abstract: The Slave Province is a geological formation that lies between Great Slave Lake and Coronation Gulf. The area contains some of the oldest known igneous and metamorphic rocks on Earth, and has a long history of mining. This project examines the surface sediment deposited during a number of past glaciations, as well as permafrost. Minerals of economic interest are found within the surface sediment and can be used to locate economic mineral deposits in the underlying bedrock. This project will improve our understanding of glacial sediments, stimulate exploration of diamond and metals in the Slave Province, and will determine permafrost conditions to inform future infrastructure development.
Abstract: We reconstructed the spatial distribution of eclogites in the cratonic mantle based on thermobarometry for ~ 240 xenoliths in 4 kimberlite pipes from different parts of the Slave craton (Canada). The accuracy of depth estimates is ensured by the use of a recently calibrated thermometer, projection of temperatures onto well-constrained local peridotitic geotherms, petrological screening for unrealistic temperature estimates, and internal consistency of all data. The depth estimates are based on new data on mineral chemistry and petrography of 148 eclogite xenoliths from the Jericho and Muskox kimberlites of the northern Slave craton and previously reported analyses of 95 eclogites from Diavik and Ekati kimberlites (Central Slave). The majority of Northern Slave eclogites of the crustal, subduction origin occurs at 110-170 km, shallower than in the majority of the Central Slave crustal eclogites (120-210 km). The identical geochronological history of these eclogite populations and the absence of steep suture boundaries between the central and northern Slave craton suggest the lateral continuity of the mantle layer relatively rich in eclogites. We explain the distribution of eclogites by partial preservation of an imbricated and plastically dispersed oceanic slab formed by easterly dipping Proterozoic subduction. The depths of eclogite localization do not correlate with geophysically mapped discontinuities. The base of the depleted lithosphere of the Slave craton constrained by thermobarometry of peridotite xenoliths coincides with the base of the thickened lithospheric slab, which supports contribution of the recycled oceanic lithosphere to formation of the cratonic root. Its architecture may have been protected by circum-cratonic subduction and shielding of the shallow Archean lithosphere from the destructive asthenospheric metasomatism.
Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, Vol. 171, 7, 25p.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Deposit - Lac de Gras arena
Abstract: Megacrystic (>1 cm) clinopyroxene (Cr-diopside) and garnet (Cr-pyrope) xenocrysts within kimberlites from Lac de Gras (Northwest Territories, Canada) contain fully crystallized melt inclusions. These ‘polymineralic inclusions’ have previously been interpreted to form by necking down of melts at mantle depths. We present a detailed petrographical and geochemical investigation of polymineralic inclusions and their host crystals to better understand how they form and what they reveal about the evolution of kimberlite melt. Genetically, the megacrysts are mantle xenocrysts with peridotitic chemical signatures indicating an origin within the lithospheric mantle (for the Cr-diopsides studied here ~4.6 GPa, 1015 °C). Textural evidence for disequilibrium between the host crystals and their polymineralic inclusions (spongy rims in Cr-diopside, kelyphite in Cr-pyrope) is consistent with measured Sr isotopic disequilibrium. The preservation of disequilibrium establishes a temporal link to kimberlite eruption. In Cr-diopsides, polymineralic inclusions contain phlogopite, olivine, chromite, serpentine, and calcite. Abundant fluid inclusion trails surround the inclusions. In Cr-pyropes, the inclusions additionally contain Al-spinel, clinopyroxene, and dolomite. The major and trace element compositions of the inclusion phases are generally consistent with the early stages of kimberlite differentiation trends. Extensive chemical exchange between the host phases and the inclusions is indicated by enrichment of the inclusions in major components of the host crystals, such as Cr2O3 and Al2O3. This chemical evidence, along with phase equilibria constraints, supports the proposal that the inclusions within Cr-diopside record the decarbonation reaction: dolomitic melt + diopside ? forsterite + calcite + CO2, yielding the observed inclusion mineralogy and producing associated (CO2-rich) fluid inclusions. Our study of polymineralic inclusions in megacrysts provides clear mineralogical and chemical evidence for an origin of kimberlite that involves the reaction of high-pressure dolomitic melt with diopside-bearing mantle assemblages producing a lower-pressure melt that crystallizes a calcite-dominated assemblage in the crust.
Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, in press available 25p.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Deposit - Lac de Gras
Abstract: Megacrystic (>1 cm) clinopyroxene (Cr-diopside) and garnet (Cr-pyrope) xenocrysts within kimberlites from Lac de Gras (Northwest Territories, Canada) contain fully crystallized melt inclusions. These ‘polymineralic inclusions’ have previously been interpreted to form by necking down of melts at mantle depths. We present a detailed petrographical and geochemical investigation of polymineralic inclusions and their host crystals to better understand how they form and what they reveal about the evolution of kimberlite melt. Genetically, the megacrysts are mantle xenocrysts with peridotitic chemical signatures indicating an origin within the lithospheric mantle (for the Cr-diopsides studied here ~4.6 GPa, 1015 °C). Textural evidence for disequilibrium between the host crystals and their polymineralic inclusions (spongy rims in Cr-diopside, kelyphite in Cr-pyrope) is consistent with measured Sr isotopic disequilibrium. The preservation of disequilibrium establishes a temporal link to kimberlite eruption. In Cr-diopsides, polymineralic inclusions contain phlogopite, olivine, chromite, serpentine, and calcite. Abundant fluid inclusion trails surround the inclusions. In Cr-pyropes, the inclusions additionally contain Al-spinel, clinopyroxene, and dolomite. The major and trace element compositions of the inclusion phases are generally consistent with the early stages of kimberlite differentiation trends. Extensive chemical exchange between the host phases and the inclusions is indicated by enrichment of the inclusions in major components of the host crystals, such as Cr2O3 and Al2O3. This chemical evidence, along with phase equilibria constraints, supports the proposal that the inclusions within Cr-diopside record the decarbonation reaction: dolomitic melt + diopside ? forsterite + calcite + CO2, yielding the observed inclusion mineralogy and producing associated (CO2-rich) fluid inclusions. Our study of polymineralic inclusions in megacrysts provides clear mineralogical and chemical evidence for an origin of kimberlite that involves the reaction of high-pressure dolomitic melt with diopside-bearing mantle assemblages producing a lower-pressure melt that crystallizes a calcite-dominated assemblage in the crust.
Abstract: Fluids are now thought to be the growth medium for most diamonds sampled from the base of the lithosphere. Fluids trapped in fast-growing, fluid-rich diamonds provide the only direct view of this growth medium and provide valuable information on the geochemistry of deep mantle fluids in general. The most common fluids within fluid-rich diamonds are those belonging to the low- and high-Mg carbonatite affinity as well as more Si-rich variants. A sub-class of fluids that are very rich in alkalis and Cl, known as “saline” fluids, have been found but are generally scarce. At both Ekati and Diavik saline fluids appear much more common and provide a unique insight into their origin. We describe a novel sampling method that allows the analysis of the trace element and radiogenic isotope composition of diamonds (both gem and fluid-rich). Using these methods we analyzed 11 diamonds from the Fox kimberlite in the Ekati kimberlite cluster. The diamonds containing saline fluids are solely associated with peridotite on the basis of their micro-mineral inclusions. Silicic fluid compositions are related exclusively to eclogitic inclusions. Striking differences between the two fluid compositions are the positive Eu and Sr anomalies within saline fluids versus no anomalies in the silicic fluids. These characteristics are identical to previously studied fluids in fibrous diamonds from neighbouring kimberlites in Ekati and Diavik, which also contains diamonds carrying high- and low-Mg carbonatitic fluids. Combining the data, we show a clear chemical evolutionary trend, identifying for the first time saline fluids as parental to silicic and carbonatitic deep mantle melts, via fluid-rock interaction in the Slave CLM. Moreover, the trace-element and Sr isotopic fingerprints of subducting slabs and the timing of host diamond formation suggest that a subducting plate under western North America is the source of the saline fluids, which controlled metasomatism in the Slave lithosphere prior to Mesozoic kimberlite eruption. Saline fluids can be documented as a metasomatic product interacting with the lithosphere above shallow-subducting slabs such as the Farallon slab. As such they appear to be key players in the enrichment of the base of the lithosphere and the formation of diamonds.
Mine Water and the Environment, Vol. 35, pp. 350-368.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Deposit - Gahcho Kue
Abstract: Eight water models were used to assess potential aquatic environmental effects of the proposed Gahcho Kué diamond mine on groundwater and surface water flow and quality in the Northwest Territories, Canada. This sequence of models was required to cover different spatial and temporal domains, as well as specific physico-chemical processes that could not be simulated by a single model. Where their domains overlapped, the models were interlinked. Feedback mechanisms amongst models were addressed through iterative simulations of linked models. The models were used to test and refine mitigation plans, and in the development of aquatic component monitoring programs. Key findings generated by each model are presented here as testable hypotheses that can be evaluated after the mine is operational. This paper therefore offers a record of assumptions and predictions that can be used as a basis for post-validation.
Abstract: A VTEM survey was flown over the Drybones kimberlite in 2005, followed by a ZTEM survey in 2009. These data sets were inverted on multiple previous occasions using various 1D, 2D, 3D and plate modelling algorithms. VTEM data showed AIP effects, manifested as negative voltages and otherwise skewed transients. This created artefacts in conventional inversions of VTEM data, which showed some inconsistencies with ZTEM inversions, as well as with the known geology. In 2015 the VTEM data were transferred to Aarhus Geophysics, reprocessed and reinverted using the modified "AarhusINV" code with Cole-Cole modelling. The results are presented in current abstract, they appear to be more interpretable and provide better data fit, than previous inversion attempts.
The Archean- Paleoproterozoic evolution of the western margin of the Slave Craton and its influence on on-craton diamonds. Second talk same day: The role of subduction in the distribution of eclogite below the Slave Craton.
Vancouver Kimberlite Cluster, Oct. 7, 1p. Abstract
Abstract: Fluids are now thought to be the growth medium for most diamonds sampled from the base of the lithosphere. Fluids trapped in fast-growing, fluid-rich diamonds provide the only direct view of this growth medium and provide valuable information on the geochemistry of deep mantle fluids in general. The most common fluids within fluid-rich diamonds are those belonging to the low- and high-Mg carbonatite affinity as well as more Si-rich variants. A sub-class of fluids that are very rich in alkalis and Cl, known as “saline” fluids, have been found but are generally scarce. At both Ekati and Diavik saline fluids appear much more common and provide a unique insight into their origin. We describe a novel sampling method that allows the analysis of the trace element and radiogenic isotope composition of diamonds (both gem and fluid-rich). Using these methods we analyzed 11 diamonds from the Fox kimberlite in the Ekati kimberlite cluster. The diamonds containing saline fluids are solely associated with peridotite on the basis of their micro-mineral inclusions. Silicic fluid compositions are related exclusively to eclogitic inclusions. Striking differences between the two fluid compositions are the positive Eu and Sr anomalies within saline fluids versus no anomalies in the silicic fluids. These characteristics are identical to previously studied fluids in fibrous diamonds from neighbouring kimberlites in Ekati and Diavik, which also contains diamonds carrying high- and low-Mg carbonatitic fluids. Combining the data, we show a clear chemical evolutionary trend, identifying for the first time saline fluids as parental to silicic and carbonatitic deep mantle melts, via fluid-rock interaction in the Slave CLM. Moreover, the trace-element and Sr isotopic fingerprints of subducting slabs and the timing of host diamond formation suggest that a subducting plate under western North America is the source of the saline fluids, which controlled metasomatism in the Slave lithosphere prior to Mesozoic kimberlite eruption. Saline fluids can be documented as a metasomatic product interacting with the lithosphere above shallow-subducting slabs such as the Farallon slab. As such they appear to be key players in the enrichment of the base of the lithosphere and the formation of diamonds.
Abstract: Homogeneity of a peridotitic garnet inclusion in diamond demonstrating excess in Si concentration (i.e. presence of majorite component) was investigated by TEM using FIB prepared foils. The host diamond is a low-nitrogen brown stone, which can be related to type IIa with features of strong plastic deformation. The studied sample is represented by Ca-poor Cr-pyrope of harzburgitic (H) paragenesis from Snap Lake dyke, Canada The garnet had been previously reported to contain Si = 3.16 apfu. The revised examination of the sample, resulted in detection of extremely fine-grained symplectite consisting of low Ca-orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, Cr-spinel and coesite completely located and isolated in the inner part of the garnet crystal, which forms a sharp interface with the surrounding homogeneous garnet. XRD study confirmed the presence of the minerals constituting the symplectite. EPMA showed an identical bulk chemistry of the nanometer-sized symplectite and garnet. Further polishing of the garnet inclusion on the same surface with diamond removed the symplectite, which possibly was present as a thin lens within garnet. The remaining garnet is completely homogeneous as checked by two profiles, and contains unusually high Ni (118.2 ppm) and depleted REE patterns. Estimated PT formation conditions of this garnet are 10.8 GPa and 1450 °C within asthenosphere. Symplectite testifies partial retrograde isochemical phase transformation of the examined garnet which is suggested to be caused by decompression along with plastic deformation of diamond within the coesite stability field at T > 1000 °C and depth no less than 100 km. Because previously published studies of rare majoritic garnets composition were performed by EPMA only, it is possible that the traces of partial phase transformation (symplectite formation) could have been overlooked without additional XRD and/or TEM/AEM studies.
Devriese, S.G.R., Corcoran, N., Cowan, D., Davis, K., Bild-Enkin, D., Fournier, D., Heagy, L., Kang, S., Marchant, D., McMillan, M.S., Mitchell, M., Rosenkjar, G., Yang, D., Oldenburg, D.W.
Abstract: The magnetic and electromagnetic responses from airborne systems at Tli Kwi Cho, a kimberlite complex in the Northwest Territories, Canada, have received considerable attention over the last two decades but a complete understanding of the causative physical properties is not yet at hand. Our analysis is distributed among three papers. In the first, we find a 3D magnetic susceptibility model for the area; in the second, we find a 3D conductivity model; and in the third paper, we find a 3D chargeability model. Our goal is to explain all the geophysical results within a geologic framework. In this first paper, we invert three independent airborne magnetic data sets flown over the Tli Kwi Cho kimberlite complex located in the Lac de Gras kimberlite field in Northwest Territories, Canada. The complex consists of two kimberlites known as DO-27 and DO- 18. An initial airborne DIGHEM survey was flown in 1992 and AeroTEM and VTEM data subsequently acquired in 2003 and 2004, respectively. In this paper, we invert each magnetic data set in three dimensions. Both kimberlites are recovered in each model, with DO-27 as a more susceptible body than DO-18. Our goal is to simultaneously invert the three data sets to generate a single susceptibility model for Tli Kwi Cho. This project is part of a larger, on-going investigation by UBC-GIF on inverting magnetic, electromagnetic, and induced polarization data from the Tli Kwi Cho area.
Fournier, D., Heagy, L., Corcoran, N., Cowan, D., Devriese, S.G.R., Bild-Enkin, D., Davis, K., Marchant, M., McMillan, M.S., Mitchell, M., Rosenkjar, G., Yang, D., Oldenburg, D.W.
Abstract: The magnetic and electromagnetic responses from airborne systems at Tli Kwi Cho, a kimberlite complex in the Northwest Territories, Canada, have received considerable attention over the last two decades but a complete understanding of the causative physical properties is not yet at hand. Our analysis is distributed among three posters. In the first we find a 3D magnetic susceptibility model for the area; in the second we find a 3D conductivity model; and in the third we find a 3D chargeability model that can explain the negative transient responses measured over the kimberlite pipes. In this second paper we focus upon the task of finding a conductivity model that is compatible with three airborne data sets flown between 1992 and 2004: one frequency-domain data set (DIGHEM) and two time-domain systems (AeroTEM and VTEM). The goal is to obtain a 3D model from which geologic questions can be answered, but even more importantly, to provide a background conductivity needed to complete the 3D IP inversion of airborne EM data. We begin by modifying our pre-existing 1D frequency and time domain inversion codes to produce models that have more lateral continuity. The results are useful in their own right but we have also found that 1D analysis is often very effective in bringing to light erroneous data, assisting in estimating noise floors, and providing some starting information for developing a background model for the 3D EM inversion. Here we show some results from our Laterally Constrained Inversion (LCI) framework. The recovered conductivity models seem to agree on the general location of the kimberlite pipes but disagree on the geometry and conductivity values at depth. The complete 3D inversions in time and frequency, needed to resolved these issues, are currently in progress.
ASEG-PESA-AIG 2016 25th Geophysical Conference, 4p. Pdf
Canada, Northwest Territories
Deposit - Tli Kwi Cho
Abstract: In this study, we revisit three airborne EM surveys over Tli Kwi Cho (TKC). These consist of a frequency domain DIGHEM data set, and two time domain surveys, VTEM and AeroTEM. Negative transients have been recorded in both of the time domain surveys and we interpret these as arising from chargeable bodies. The kimberlite pipes are referred to as DO-27 and DO-18. We look in more detail at the transient data and apply the ATEM-IP inversion procedure to recover a 3D pseudo-chargeability distribution. Important components of the analysis involve estimating a background conductivity for the region. For DO-27 we have used a 3D parametric inversion to recover the conductivity from TEM data. The IP signal for the inversion is obtained by subtracting the time domain responses estimated by EM inversion from the observed background signal. This process also removes EM coupling noise that might be contaminating the data. The resultant IP data are inverted with a linear inverse approach using the sensitivity from the background conductivity. This yields a 3D model of pseudo-chargeability.
Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, Vol. 53, 1, pp. 41-58.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Deposit - Muskox
Abstract: We present petrography, mineralogy, and thermobarometry for 53 mantle-derived xenoliths from the Muskox kimberlite pipe in the northern Slave craton. The xenolith suite includes 23% coarse peridotite, 9% porphyroclastic peridotite, 60% websterite, and 8% orthopyroxenite. Samples primarily comprise forsteritic olivine (Fo 89-94), enstatite (En 89-94), Cr-diopside, Cr-pyrope garnet, and chromite spinel. Coarse peridotites, porphyroclastic peridotites, and pyroxenites equilibrated at 650-1220 °C and 23-63 kbar (1 kbar = 100 MPa), 1200-1350 °C and 57-70 kbar, and 1030-1230 °C and 50-63 kbar, respectively. The Muskox xenoliths differ from xenoliths in the neighboring and contemporaneous Jericho kimberlite by their higher levels of depletion, the presence of a shallow zone of metasomatism in the spinel peridotite field, a higher proportion of pyroxenites at the base of the mantle column, higher Cr2O3 in all pyroxenite minerals, and weaker deformation in the Muskox mantle. We interpret these contrasts as representing small-scale heterogeneities in the bulk composition of the mantle, as well as the local effects of interaction between metasomatizing fluid and mantle wall rocks. We suggest that asthenosphere-derived pre-kimberlitic melts and fluids percolated less effectively through the less permeable Muskox mantle, resulting in lower degrees of hydrous weakening, strain, and fertilization of the peridotitic mantle. Fluids tended to concentrate and pool in the deep mantle, causing partial melting and formation of abundant pyroxenites.
Journal of South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Vol. 116, Feb. pp. 189-201.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Deposit - Fox, Ekati
Abstract: Multiple-point simulation (MPS) methods have been developed over the last decade as a means of reproducing complex geological patterns while generating stochastic simulations. Some geological spatial configurations are complex, such as the spatial geometries and patterns of diamond-bearing kimberlite pipes and their internal facies controlling diamond quality and distribution. Two MPS methods were tested for modelling the geology of a diamond pipe located at the Ekati mine, NT, Canada. These are the single normal equation simulation algorithm SNESIM, which captures different patterns from a training image (TI), and the filter simulation algorithm FILTERSIM, which classifies the patterns founded on the TI. Both methods were tested in the stochastic simulation of a four-category geology model: crater, diatreme, xenoliths, and host rock. Soft information about the location of host rock was also used. The validation of the simulation results shows a reasonable reproduction of the geometry and data proportions for all geological units considered; the validation of spatial statistics, however, shows that although simulated realizations from both methods reasonably reproduce the fourth-order spatial statistics of the TI, they do not reproduce well the same spatial statistics of the available data (when this differs from the TI). An interesting observation is that SNESIM better imitated the shape of the pipe, while FILTERSIM yielded a better reproduction of the xenolith bodies.
Abstract: Apatite-group phosphates are nearly ubiquitous in carbonatites, but our understanding of these minerals is inadequate, particularly in the areas of element partitioning and petrogenetic interpretation of their compositional variation among spatially associated rocks and within individual crystals. In the present work, the mode of occurrence, and major- and trace-element chemistry of apatite (sensu lato) from calcite and dolomite carbonatites, their associated cumulate rocks (including phoscorites) and hydrothermal parageneses were studied using a set of 80 samples from 50 localities worldwide. The majority of this set represents material for which no analytical data are available in the literature. Electron-microprobe and laser-ablation mass-spectrometry data (~ 600 and 400 analyses, respectively), accompanied by back-scattered-electron and cathodoluminescence images and Raman spectra, were used to identify the key compositional characteristics and zoning patterns of carbonatitic apatite. These data are placed in the context of phosphorus geochemistry in carbonatitic systems and carbonatite evolution, and compared to the models proposed by previous workers. The documented variations in apatite morphology and zoning represent a detailed record of a wide range of evolutionary processes, both magmatic and fluid-driven. The majority of igneous apatite from the examined rocks is Cl-poor fluorapatite or F-rich hydroxylapatite (? 0.3 apfu F) with 0.2-2.7 wt.% SrO, 0-4.5 wt.% LREE2O3, 0-0.8 wt.% Na2O, and low levels of other cations accommodated in the Ca site (up to 1000 ppm Mn, 2300 ppm Fe, 200 ppm Ba, 150 ppm Pb, 700 ppm Th and 150 ppm U), none of which show meaningful correlation with the host-rock type. Silicate, (SO4)2 ? and (VO4)3 ? anions, substituting for (PO4)3 ?, tend to occur in greater abundance in crystals from calcite carbonatites (up to 4.2 wt.% SiO2, 1.5 wt.% SO3 and 660 ppm V). Although (CO3)2 ? groups are very likely present in some samples, Raman micro-spectroscopy proved inconclusive for apatites with small P-site deficiencies and other substituent elements in this site. Indicator REE ratios sensitive to redox conditions (?Ce, ?Eu) and hydrothermal overprint (?Y) form a fairly tight cluster of values (0.8-1.3, 0.8-1.1 and 0.6-0.9, respectively) and may be used in combination with trace-element abundances for the development of geochemical exploration tools. Hydrothermal apatite forms in carbonatites as the product of replacement of primary apatite, or is deposited in fractures and interstices as euhedral crystals and aggregates associated with typical late-stage minerals (e.g., quartz and chlorite). Hydrothermal apatite is typically depleted in Sr, REE, Mn and Th, but enriched in F (up to 4.8 wt.%) relative to its igneous precursor, and also differs from the latter in at least some of key REE ratios [e.g., shows (La/Yb)cn ? 25, or a negative Ce anomaly]. The only significant exception is Sr(± REE,Na)-rich replacement zones and overgrowths on igneous apatite from some dolomite(-bearing) carbonatites. Their crystallization conditions and source fluid appear to be very different from the more common Sr-REE-depleted variety. Based on the new evidence presented in this work, trace-element partitioning between apatite and carbonatitic magmas, phosphate solubility in these magmas, and compositional variation of apatite-group minerals from spatially associated carbonatitic rocks are critically re-evaluated.
Abstract: Induced polarization (IP) effects are becoming more evident in time-domain helicopter airborne electromagnetic (AEM) data thanks to advances in instrumentation, mainly due to improvements in the signal-to-noise ratio and hence better data quality. Although the IP effects are often manifested as negative receiver voltage values, which are easy to detect, in some cases, IP effects can distort recovered transients in other ways so they may be less obvious and require careful data analysis and processing. These effects represent a challenge for modeling and inversion of the AEM data. For proper modeling of electromagnetic transients, the chargeability of the subsurface and other parameters describing the dispersion also need to be taken into consideration. We use the Cole-Cole model to characterize the dispersion and for modeling of the IP effects in field AEM data, collected by different airborne systems over different geologies and exploration targets, including examples from diamond, gold, and base metal exploration.
Abstract: Drift prospecting has been a successful mineral exploration tool in previously glaciated terrains. Based on the concepts of glacial dynamics, and related sediment production, transport and deposition, drift prospecting surveys assess compositional variability within glacial sediments and trace indicators of mineralization back to a buried bedrock source. The time-transgressive nature of shifting ice flow direction and related till production is an important factor, controlling the shape and extent of dispersal patterns in till. The effect of changing ice flow on the composition of till has been well-studied in both map view, as well as longitudinally in cross section (i.e., dispersal curves). Fewer studies have looked at dispersal patterns holistically in three-dimensions. Here, we use 94 reverse circulation (RC) boreholes, yielding 254 till samples, to reconstruct the subsurface geometry of a dispersal train from a pair of buried kimberlite pipes (DO-27 and DO-18) in the Northwest Territories. Discrete smooth interpolation modeling in SKUA-GOCAD based on downhole data allows for visualization of geochemical anomalies within the till column, as well as the subsurface density of kimberlite indicator mineral grains. Through the combination of borehole data, field work, and modeling, we are able to compare three-dimensional dispersal patterns in the subsurface with local ice flow records, measured from erosional ice flow indicators in the field. This dataset allows us to evaluate the role that changing ice flow, as well as local bedrock surface topography, play in controlling dispersal and deposition of clastic sediment by past ice sheets. Our modeling documents buried palimpsest terrains along older ice flow trajectories, demonstrating lateral and vertical variability within a single, relatively thin and discontinuous till sheet. Furthermore, we observe relationships between local indicator mineral concentrations and bedrock topography, with indicator mineral dispersal concentrated along a bedrock-controlled topographic low aligned with the most recent ice flow. This work demonstrates the benefit of detailed mapping and visualization of a dispersal plume, even in areas of relatively thin and discontinuous till cover, highlighting the role basal topography and shifting ice flow plays on shaping the surface expression of a dispersal train.
Abstract: The results of integrated studies of inclusion-containing diamonds from kimberlites of the Snap Lake dike complex (Canada) are presented. Features of the morphology, defect–impurity composition, and internal structure of the diamonds were determined by optic and scanning microscopy. The chemical composition of crystalline inclusions (olivine, garnet, and pyroxene) in diamonds was studied using a microanalyzer with an electronic probe. The inclusions of ultramafic paragenesis in the diamond (87%) are predominant. Carbonates, sulfide and hydrated silicate phases were found only in multiphase microinclusions. The large phlogopite inclusion studied was similar in composition to earlier studied nanosize inclusions of high-silica mica in diamonds from Snap Lake kimberlites. Revealed features of studied diamonds and presence of high-silica mica suggest that diamonds from Snap Lake have formed as the result of interaction between enriched in volatile and titanium high-potassium carbonate–silicate melts and peridotitic substrate at the base of thick lithospheric mantle.
Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, Vol. 54, pp. 203-232.
Canada, Northwest Territories
kimberlite
Abstract: The Wopmay orogen is a Paleoproterozoic accretionary belt preserved to the west of the Archean Slave craton, northwest Canada. Reworked Archean crystalline basement occurs in the orogen, and new bedrock mapping, U–Pb geochronology, and Sm–Nd isotopic data further substantiate a Slave craton parentage for this basement. Detrital zircon results from unconformably overlying Paleoproterozoic supracrustal rocks also support a Slave craton provenance. Rifting of the Slave margin began at ca. 2.02 Ga with a second rift phase constrained between ca. 1.92 and 1.89 Ga, resulting in thermal weakening of the Archean basement and allowing subsequent penetrative deformation during the Calderian orogeny (ca. 1.88–1.85 Ga). The boundary between the western Slave craton and the reworked Archean basement in the southern Wopmay orogen is interpreted as the rifted cratonic margin, which later acted as a rigid backstop during compressional deformation. Age-isotopic characteristics of plutonic phases track the extent and evolution of these processes that left penetratively deformed Archean basement, Paleoproterozoic cover, and plutons in the west, and “rigid” Archean Slave craton to the east. Diamond-bearing kimberlite occurs across the central and eastern parts of the Slave craton, but kimberlite (diamond bearing or not) has not been documented west of ?114°W. It is proposed that while the crust of the western Slave craton escaped thermal weakening, the mantle did not and was moved out of the diamond stability field. The Paleoproterozoic extension–convergence cycle preserved in the Wopmay orogen provides a reasonable explanation as to why the western Slave craton appears to be diamond sterile.
Abstract: The abundance and distribution of halogens (F, Cl) are rarely recorded in kimberlites and therefore their petrogenetic significance is poorly constrained. Halogens are usually present in kimberlite rocks in the structure of phlogopite and apatite, but their original concentrations are never fully retained due to the effects of alteration. To provide new constraints on the origin and evolution of halogens in kimberlites and their melts, we present a detailed study of the petrography and geochemistry of the late-Cretaceous Group-I (or archetypal) Roger kimberlite (Ekati cluster, Canada). The studied samples contain abundant anhedral-to-euhedral olivine which is set in a crystalline groundmass of monticellite, phlogopite, apatite, spinel (i.e. magnesian ulvöspinel-magnetite (MUM), Mg-magnetite, pleonaste, Cr-spinel), and perovskite along with abundant secondary alteration phases (i.e. serpentine, garnet (andradite-schlorlomite), amakinite ((Fe2 +, Mg, Mn)(OH)2), calcite). The Roger kimberlite is characterised by the highest recorded F-content (up to 2688 ppm) of the Ekati cluster kimberlites, which is reflected by the preservation of F-rich phases, where bultfonteinite (Ca4(Si2O7)(F, OH)2) and fluorite commonly replace olivine. In order to examine the composition and evolution of the kimberlite melt prior to post-magmatic processes, we studied melt inclusions in olivine, Cr-spinel, monticellite and apatite. Primary multiphase melt inclusions in Cr-spinel, monticellite and apatite and secondary inclusions in olivine are shown to contain a diversity of daughter phases and compositions that are dominated by alkali/alkali-earth (Na, K, Ba, Sr)-enriched Ca-Mg-carbonates ± F, Na-K-chlorides and sulphates, phosphates ± REE, spinel, silicates (e.g. olivine, phlogopite, (clino)humite), and sulphides. Although alkali/alkali-earth- and halogen-bearing phases are abundant in melt inclusions, they are generally absent from the kimberlite groundmass, most likely due to ubiquitous effects of syn- and/or post-magmatic alteration (i.e. serpentinisation). Comparisons between halogens and other trace elements of similar compatibility (i.e. F/Nd and Cl/U) in the Roger kimberlite and their respective estimated primitive mantle abundances show that halogens should be a more significant component in kimberlites than typically measured. We propose that fluorine in the Roger kimberlite was magmatic and was redistributed during hydrothermal alteration by Ca-bearing serpentinising fluids to produce the observed bultfonteinite/fluorite assemblages. Based the compositions and daughter mineral assemblages in primary melt inclusions and reconstructed halogen abundances, we suggest that Cr-spinel, monticellite and apatite crystallised from a variably differentiated Si-P-Cl-F-bearing carbonate melt that was enriched in alkalis/alkali-earths and highly incompatible trace elements.
Abstract: The abundance and distribution of halogens (F, Cl) are rarely recorded in kimberlites and therefore their petrogenetic significance is poorly constrained. Halogens are usually present in kimberlite rocks in the structure of phlogopite and apatite, but their original concentrations are never fully retained due to the effects of alteration. To provide new constraints on the origin and evolution of halogens in kimberlites and their melts, we present a detailed study of the petrography and geochemistry of the late-Cretaceous Group-I (or archetypal) Roger kimberlite (Ekati cluster, Canada). The studied samples contain abundant anhedral-to-euhedral olivine which is set in a crystalline groundmass of monticellite, phlogopite, apatite, spinel (i.e. magnesian ulvöspinel-magnetite (MUM), Mg-magnetite, pleonaste, Cr-spinel), and perovskite along with abundant secondary alteration phases (i.e. serpentine, garnet (andradite-schlorlomite), amakinite ((Fe2 +, Mg, Mn)(OH)2), calcite). The Roger kimberlite is characterised by the highest recorded F-content (up to 2688 ppm) of the Ekati cluster kimberlites, which is reflected by the preservation of F-rich phases, where bultfonteinite (Ca4(Si2O7)(F, OH)2) and fluorite commonly replace olivine. In order to examine the composition and evolution of the kimberlite melt prior to post-magmatic processes, we studied melt inclusions in olivine, Cr-spinel, monticellite and apatite. Primary multiphase melt inclusions in Cr-spinel, monticellite and apatite and secondary inclusions in olivine are shown to contain a diversity of daughter phases and compositions that are dominated by alkali/alkali-earth (Na, K, Ba, Sr)-enriched Ca-Mg-carbonates ± F, Na-K-chlorides and sulphates, phosphates ± REE, spinel, silicates (e.g. olivine, phlogopite, (clino)humite), and sulphides. Although alkali/alkali-earth- and halogen-bearing phases are abundant in melt inclusions, they are generally absent from the kimberlite groundmass, most likely due to ubiquitous effects of syn- and/or post-magmatic alteration (i.e. serpentinisation). Comparisons between halogens and other trace elements of similar compatibility (i.e. F/Nd and Cl/U) in the Roger kimberlite and their respective estimated primitive mantle abundances show that halogens should be a more significant component in kimberlites than typically measured. We propose that fluorine in the Roger kimberlite was magmatic and was redistributed during hydrothermal alteration by Ca-bearing serpentinising fluids to produce the observed bultfonteinite/fluorite assemblages. Based the compositions and daughter mineral assemblages in primary melt inclusions and reconstructed halogen abundances, we suggest that Cr-spinel, monticellite and apatite crystallised from a variably differentiated Si-P-Cl-F-bearing carbonate melt that was enriched in alkalis/alkali-earths and highly incompatible trace elements
Abstract: Monticellite is a magmatic and/or deuteric mineral that is often present, but widely varying in concentrations in Group-I (or archetypal) kimberlites. To provide new constraints on the petrogenesis of monticellite and its potential significance to kimberlite melt evolution, we examine the petrography and geochemistry of the minimally altered hypabyssal monticellite-rich Leslie (Canada) and Pipe 1 (Finland) kimberlites. In these kimberlites, monticellite (Mtc) is abundant (25–45 vol%) and can be classified into two distinct morphological types: discrete and intergrown groundmass grains (Mtc-I), and replacement of olivine (Mtc-II).
Monticellite in group-I kimberlites: Implications for evolution of parental melts and post-emplacement CO 2 degassing (PDF Download Available).
Abstract: The Kennady North Project kimberlites are located approximately 280 kilometers east-northeast of Yellowknife, in the Northwest Territories of Canada. The unusual geometry and extent of the kimberlite magmatic system is revealed by renewed exploration drilling activities by Kennady Diamonds since 2012. It has become clear that the system comprises multiple intrusive dykes within which several volcaniclastic bodies have developed, all within 11 kilometres of the Gahcho Kué kimberlite cluster and diamond mine. The detailed exploration of the entire system provides unique evidence for subterranean volcanic conduit growth processes that may have scientific and practical exploration benefits.
Density measurement within the context of the rock mass characterization program of the Kelvin and Faraday kimberlites and surrounding country rock in the Northwest Territories of Canada.
Cr-rich megacrysts of clinopyroxene and garnet from Lac de Gras kimberlites, Slave craton, Canada - implications for the origin of clinopyroxenes and garnet in cratonic peridotites.
Abstract: Megacrystic (>1 cm) clinopyroxene (Cr-diopside) and garnet (Cr-pyrope) xenocrysts within kimberlites from Lac de Gras (Northwest Territories, Canada) contain fully crystallized melt inclusions. These `polymineralic inclusions' have previously been interpreted to form by necking down of melts at mantle depths. We present a detailed petrographical and geochemical investigation of polymineralic inclusions and their host crystals to better understand how they form and what they reveal about the evolution of kimberlite melt. Genetically, the megacrysts are mantle xenocrysts with peridotitic chemical signatures indicating an origin within the lithospheric mantle (for the Cr-diopsides studied here ~4.6 GPa, 1015 °C). Textural evidence for disequilibrium between the host crystals and their polymineralic inclusions (spongy rims in Cr-diopside, kelyphite in Cr-pyrope) is consistent with measured Sr isotopic disequilibrium. The preservation of disequilibrium establishes a temporal link to kimberlite eruption. In Cr-diopsides, polymineralic inclusions contain phlogopite, olivine, chromite, serpentine, and calcite. Abundant fluid inclusion trails surround the inclusions. In Cr-pyropes, the inclusions additionally contain Al-spinel, clinopyroxene, and dolomite. The major and trace element compositions of the inclusion phases are generally consistent with the early stages of kimberlite differentiation trends. Extensive chemical exchange between the host phases and the inclusions is indicated by enrichment of the inclusions in major components of the host crystals, such as Cr2O3 and Al2O3. This chemical evidence, along with phase equilibria constraints, supports the proposal that the inclusions within Cr-diopside record the decarbonation reaction: dolomitic melt + diopside ? forsterite + calcite + CO2, yielding the observed inclusion mineralogy and producing associated (CO2-rich) fluid inclusions. Our study of polymineralic inclusions in megacrysts provides clear mineralogical and chemical evidence for an origin of kimberlite that involves the reaction of high-pressure dolomitic melt with diopside-bearing mantle assemblages producing a lower-pressure melt that crystallizes a calcite-dominated assemblage in the crust.
Hydration of the lithospheric mantle in the northern Slave craton ( Canada): constraints from combined FTIR and ESRD measurements on peridotite xenoliths.
Abstract: Kimberlites are volcanic ultramafic rocks originate from the upper mantle, and some are diamond bearing. Due to assimilation of mantle and crustal material, loss of volatiles, significant alteration and variable compositions of kimberlite seen at the surface, the primary composition and proportion of melt fluids (H2O, CO2) are unknown. Kimberlitic fluid and melt composition have significant effects on the preservation and quality of diamonds carried to the surface. In an attempt to gain predictive knowledge of the economic viability of a kimberlite, it is important to understand the primary and evolving compositions of kimberlite magmas, as well as the behaviour of volatiles during kimberlite eruption. Apatite is a common groundmass mineral in kimberlite, and has a composition sensitive to volatiles and trace elements [Ca5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH)]. This study will examine the variation of apatite occurrence, composition, texture and trace element distribution in relation to varied kimberlite geologies and explore the potential of apatite as an indicator of fluid history and melt composition. Seven kimberlites have been selected for a study of groundmass apatite. The six Ekati property kimberlites (Koala, Misery, Panda, Beartooth, Leslie and Grizzly) have been chosen for their varying facies and styles of eruption. Panda and Beartooth are resedimented volcaniclastic kimberlites. Misery and Koala are massive volcaniclastic kimberlites. Leslie and Grizzly are pipe-fill coherent kimberlites. The seventh kimberlite, Snap Lake, is a coherent kimberlite dyke. All kimberlites are located in the Northwest Territories, Canada. Selecting kimberlites with diverse eruption styles allows us to test the apatite indicator model for a variety of potential volatile histories. Back scatter electron imaging has been used to identify and discriminate significant differences in apatite abundance and textural characteristics from Ekati kimberlites and Snap Lake. Wavelength dispersive spectroscopic analysis for major and some trace elements (LREE’s, Sr, Ba) reveals primary substitution mechanisms for rare earth element (REE) incorporation into apatite structure. Previous studies show that distribution of trace elements into apatite greatly depends on the growth media. Partitioning of the LREE’s relative to Sr is significantly different between silicate melt, carbonate melt, and aqueous fluid. Experimental partition coefficients between apatite and various growth media are used to test existing hypotheses of kimberlite melt composition. The future aim of this project is to establish apatite as an effective indicator of magmatic fluid and outline the applicability of groundmass apatite as an indicator of diamond preservation potential in kimberlites.
Evidence for a >200 km thick diamond -bearing root beneath the Central Mackenzie Valley, Northwest Territories, Canada: diamond indicator mineral geochemistry from the Horn Plateau and Trout Lakes regions.
Canada, Northwest Territories, Quebec, United States, Colorado
deposit, A54, Lynx, Kelsey Lake
Abstract: Eighteen diamond samples from the A154 South kimberlite pipe (Diavik Mine), Slave Craton, Northwest Territories (Canada); sixteen diamond samples from the Lynx kimberlite dyke, Superior Craton, Quebec (Canada) and twelve diamond samples from the Kelsey Lake kimberlite pipe, Wyoming Craton, Colorado (USA), were cut through the core-zones, polished, imaged by cathodoluminescence (CL), and analyzed by secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) for carbon isotope composition and nitrogen abundance. Twenty Kelsey Lake diamond plates, including the twelve crystals analyzed by SIMS, were analyzed by Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR) for nitrogen concentration and aggregation state. Diamond samples from Diavik and Kelsey Lake have average ?13CPDB and nitrogen contents (atomic ppm) similar to those found by earlier studies: averaging between ? 3.9‰ and 486 ppm, and ? 7‰ and 308 ppm, respectively. Samples from the Lynx dyke, investigated for the first time, are substantially different, having ?13C = ?1.2‰ and nitrogen content = 32 ppm (averages). All three localities have examples of significant variations in nitrogen content (> 100 ppm) within single stones. Carbon isotope variation within individual stones is relatively minor (< 2‰). In terms of nitrogen aggregation, samples from the Kelsey Lake kimberlite are dominated by zones of Type IaA, but mixed-type and Type IaB (less common) stones also occur. For the majority of samples, overall intra-diamond zonations of nitrogen abundances and carbon isotope ratios are not in agreement with modeled trends for single-event Rayleigh fractionation of diamond from fluid under nitrogen-compatible conditions at 1100 °C. The involvement of fluids from subducted crustal reservoirs with exceptionally light, and in the case of Lynx samples, exceptionally heavy ?13CPDB values is necessary to explain the observed growth histories of all the samples studied here.
Hydrogen of the lithospheric mantle in the northern Slave craton ( Canada): constraints from combined FTIR and EBSD measurements on peridoite xenoliths.
Abstract: Garnet arguably constitutes the most important mineral in diamond exploration studies; not only can the presence of mantle garnet in exploration samples point to kimberlite occurrences, but its minor and trace element composition can further be used to assess the “diamond potential” of a kimberlite. The content of Cr and Ca, especially, has been found to be a reliable tool to test whether garnets originate from within the diamond stability field in the mantle [1]. Trace element patterns can further indicate the mantle host rock of the garnets, for example, whether they originate from a depleted or ultra-depleted mantle section [2]. Routinely, two separate analytical methods are necessary to fully characterize the composition of garnet; major and minor elements are usually determined by electron probe micro-analysis (EPMA), whereas determination of trace elements requires the more sensitive method of laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). Here, we demonstrate rapid measurement of the entire suite of elements in garnet employing a new, commercially available timeof-flight (TOF) mass spectrometer, the icpTOF (TOFWERK AG, Thun, Switzerland), coupled to a fast wash-out laser ablation system (Teledyne Cetac Technologies Inc., Omaha, NE, USA). Using garnets from exploration samples taken from the Horn Plateau, Northwest Territories, Canada [3], we directly compare the icpTOF results to EPMA and LA-ICP-MS data. We examine whether the icpTOF can reliably characterize the garnets in Cr versus Ca space and at the same time reproduce their trace element patterns, thereby offering a cost effective method of analysis. The method of LA-ICP-TOF-MS, with its high speed of data acquisition and its ability to record the entire mass spectrum simultaneously, may have great benefits for (diamond) exploration studies. Moreover, the method can be used for fast, highresolution imaging, which is applicable to a wide range of geological materials and settings [4].
Abstract: The nitrogen concentration and aggregation form reflect the conditions of diamond formation and diamond evolution in primary source [1]. FTIR measurements were made on 40 colorless or slightly greenish octahedral diamonds from Snap Lake kimberlite dyke system. Studied diamonds differ in nitrogen content, distribution and aggregation degree. The total nitrogen content in different diamond zones is up to 1600 ppm. Diamonds have been classified into two groups on the basis of nitrogen aggregation degree in them. Group 1 includes poorly-aggregated-nitrogen diamonds. We suggest that such diamonds belong to the same generation such as cubic diamonds from Snap Lake [2]. The low degree of nitrogen aggregation in diamonds is indicative of short mantle residence and suggests that they crystallized shortly before kimberlite eruption. Diamonds of Group 2 are characterized by high nitrogen aggregation degree (up to 98.6%). Group 2 includes diamonds either with uniform nitrogen distribution throughout the crystal volume or with a predominance of Bdefect in the center. Inhomogeneity in nitrogen distribution from the center to the edge of the octahedral crystals indicates, at least, about the two, or even more growth stages of a part of the studied diamonds. High nitrogen aggregation degree according to “annealing” model is evidence of diamond staying in the high temperature region or of their residence in the mantle conditions. Results obtained support that significant part of octahedral diamonds from Snap Lake may have formed at the base of a thick lithospheric mantle at depth below 300 km [3].
Abstract: Is there the existence of a water-rich zone in the mantle, currently one of the most discussed problem in mantle petrology? There are recent studies of low-water content in nominally anhydrous minerals in diamonds [1] and the chemistry of exceptionally rare phlogopite inclusions coexisting with peridotitic and eclogitic minerals in kimberlite-hosted diamonds [2]. Previous studies have shown that some rapidly formed diamonds reflect the composition of the environment in which they formed [3]. The minerals trapped during nucleation stage remain shielded from any changing conditions during further diamond growth or later mantle metasomatism. Thus, the analysis of diamond microinclusions is a major tool for the direct study of mantle high-density fluids (HDFs) from which the diamonds have precipitated [4]. Using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) techniques, we have investigated hydrous silicates inside nanometerscale, polyphased unclusions, especially in dark cloudy alluvial and kimberlite diamonds. Clinohumite, phlogopite, and phengite were detected. Hydrous silicate phases are accompanied by Ba-Sr-Ca -Fe-Mg carbonates, in addition to sulfides, oxides (magnetite, rutile, ilmenite), F-apatite, KCl, graphite, and fluid bubbles. A contrast occurs between clinohumite associated with phlogopite, F-apatite and highMg carbonates, but phengite, accompanied by a Al, Kbearing, unidentified silicate. These inclusions reflect the composition of fluid from which the host diamond crystallized. The mica composition, in most cases, has excess Si, similar to the high-silica mica identified within diamond microinclusions from Diavik [5]. The fluid-bearing carbonatitic-silicic diamonds grew in water-rich environments with extremely high K-activity, compared to most diamonds, which grew only within limited zones in the Earth’s mantle.
Abstract: The Slave craton, located in the northwestern portion of the Canadian Shield, contains the oldest known remnant of evolved crust on Earth [1?3] and more extensive suites of granitoid basement gneisses with crystallization ages that nearly span the breadth of the Archean. Portions of these basement gneisses form the Central Slave Basement Complex (CSBC), a belt of exposures recording magmatic events that occurred approximately every 100?150 million years from 3.5?2.7 Ga [4]. When considered with the 4.02 Ga Acasta Gneiss Complex, the good exposure and wide age range of basement gneisses of the Slave craton provide a unique record of the geological processes involved in continent formation. A suite of 3.5?2.7 gyr old Slave craton granitoids collected from a 200 km-long traverse of the CSBC has intermediate to felsic compositions, textures that range from migmatitic gneisses to preservation of primary magmatic features. Preliminary Sm-Nd isotope systematics, as well as zircon U-Pb and Hf isotope data suggest that the granitoids reflect both the products of reworking of Hadean crust, as indicated by the presence of 142Nd deficits in some of the units, but also new additions from the mantle as indicated both in the chemical composition and initial isotopic composition of other rock units. For those samples that derive from remelting of older crustal materials, the initial Hf isotopic composition of zircons are most consistent with a source component that includes Hadean mafic crust. The multiple U-Pb age peaks documented by accessory minerals show a close correspondence with age spectra from the welldocumented mantle lithosphere beneath this region [5] illustrating the coupled evolution of crust and mantle.
Abstract: Little work has been completed on paleo-ice-sheet flow indicators of the Laurentide Ice Sheet, west of the Keewatin Ice Divide. Field mapping, sampling and analysis of glaciogenic sediment (?500 sample sites) in a ?33,000 km2 region near the East Arm of Great Slave Lake in northwestern Canada, provided a rare opportunity to improve understanding of sediment erosion and transport patterns. Glacially-eroded bedrock and sedimentary landforms record east to west flow with NW and SW divergence, mapped within a portion of the Great Slave Lake flow tract. Transported till reflects a similar divergent flow pattern based on dispersal geometries for multiple indicators (e.g., heavy minerals and lithic fragments), which are aligned with the dominant and latest ice flow direction. Glaciofluvial erosion (e.g., s-forms and till removal), transport, and deposition (mainly as esker sediment) are set within 0.3-3 km wide meltwater erosional corridors, spaced regularly at 10-15 km intervals. Transport paths and distances are comparable in till and esker sediment, however, distances appear to be greater (?5-25 km) in some esker constituents and indicator minerals are typically more concentrated in esker sediment than in till. Corridors form a divergent array identical to the pattern of ice-flow features. The congruence of ice and meltwater flow features is interpreted to be a response to a similar ice sheet gradient, and close timing of events (late dominant glacial ice flow and meltwater flow). The similarity in glacial and glaciofluvial flow patterns has important ramifications for event reconstruction and for exploration geologists utilizing mineral and geochemical tracing methods in this region, and possibly other parts of northern Canada. The correspondence between East Arm dispersal patterns, landforms and flow indicators supports interpretation of a simple and predictable single flow divergence model. This is in contrast to previous, multi-flow models, in which fan-shaped geometries are often reported to result from multiple transport events, compared to single-flow divergence. The observed widespread effects of glaciofluvial processes (e.g., erosional corridors) indicate a need to update existing terrain process models.
Abstract: Eocene paleoclimate reconstructions are rarely accompanied by parallel estimates of CO2 from the same locality, complicating assessment of the equilibrium climate response to elevated CO2. We reconstruct temperature, precipitation, and CO2 from latest middle Eocene (ca. 38 Ma) terrestrial sediments in the posteruptive sediment fill of the Giraffe kimberlite in subarctic Canada. Mutual climatic range and oxygen isotope analyses of botanical fossils reveal a humid-temperate forest ecosystem with mean annual temperatures (MATs) more than 17 °C warmer than present and mean annual precipitation ?4× present. Metasequoia stomatal indices and gas-exchange modeling produce median CO2 concentrations of ?630 and ?430 ppm, respectively, with a combined median estimate of ?490 ppm. Reconstructed MATs are more than 6 °C warmer than those produced by Eocene climate models forced at 560 ppm CO2. Estimates of regional climate sensitivity, expressed as ?MAT per CO2 doubling above preindustrial levels, converge on a value of ?13 °C, underscoring the capacity for exceptional polar amplification of warming and hydrological intensification under modest CO2 concentrations once both fast and slow feedbacks become expressed.
45th. Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum, p. 2 abstract
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Diavik
Abstract: At Diavik, sustainable development is integrated into everything we do. Our operations provide benefits and opportunities for local communities, businesses, and governments. We work with all our stakeholders to deliver substantial and lasting benefits. The Diavik sustainable development report, is a requirement under the Diavik socio-economic monitoring agreement (SEMA). Through this report information on annual training, employment, business benefits, and community initiatives are available to the public. During this session of the Geoscience discussion, we will be sharing the Diavik Diamond mine performance under the SEMA up to and including December 2016.
45th. Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum, p. 4 abstract
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Kelvin, Faraday
Abstract: The Kennady North Project kimberlites are located approximately 280 kilometers east-northeast of Yellowknife, in the Northwest Territories of Canada. The unusual geometry and extent of the kimberlite magmatic system is revealed by renewed exploration drilling activities by Kennady Diamonds since 2012. It has become clear that the system comprises multiple intrusive dykes within which several volcaniclastic bodies have developed, all within 11 kilometres of the Gahcho Kué kimberlite cluster and diamond mine. The detailed exploration of the entire system provides unique evidence for subterranean volcanic conduit growth processes that may have scientific and practical exploration benefits. The identified Kennady North Project volcaniclastic bodies are named Kelvin, Faraday 1, Faraday 2 and Faraday 3, and have complex geometries atypical of the more common subvertical kimberlite pipes. Rather, these pipe-like bodies are inclined between 12 and 30 degrees towards the northwest. Kelvin has sharp angular change in trend towards the north. On-going detailed petrographic studies have shown that the pipes contain layers of complex volcaniclastic units with variable volumes of xenolithic fragments, as well as coherent magmatic layers. The pipe textures include evidence for high energy magma and country rock fragmentation processes typically observed in open volcanic systems. The pipes have developed within a shallow 20 degree northwest dipping kimberlite dyke system. Detailed structural geology studies, using fault observations in oriented and unoriented drill core, have identified at least two important fault-fracture trends. The first fault-fracture system is parallel to the dyke segments, and likely related to the intrusion of the dykes and the regional stress tensor during emplacement. The second fault system is subvertical and north-south striking, parallel to the lithological layering within the metasedimentary country rock. The north-south faults match the contact geometry of the Kelvin pipe’s north-south limb exactly. The dykes have been 3-D modelled along with the pipes. Three possible renditions of the dykes have been created, based on different interpretations of dyke segment continuity. The renditions have been labelled “Optimistic”, “Realistic” and “Pessimistic”. The assumptions made have important implications for developing dyke-type mineral resources. The realistic dyke model defines dyke segments that intersect the Kelvin pipe, and those intersections match geometric trends and irregularities in the pipe shape. The coincidental geometries strongly imply that the pipe development interacted with a penecontemporaneous dyke system. The north-south faults also controlled the local trend of Kelvin pipe development, possibly by enhancing fluid permeability, alteration and brecciation along the faults, connecting from one shallow dipping dyke to the next above. Breccia bodies have been observed on similar dipping dykes at Snap Lake mine that intersect fault structures. We conclude that the pipe development geometry and process is governed by a combination of stress, structure and magmatic fluids, and speculate on the nature of the energy required for fragmentation and development of the pipe at some still unknown depth in the crust.
45th. Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum, p. 33 abstract
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Darby
Abstract: New geological and geophysical research on Canada’s Rae craton are providing an increasingly good baseline for diamond exploration. This study uses mantle xenoliths and xenocrysts from the Darby property, located ~200 km southwest of the community of Kugaaruk, Nunavut, to provide new information on the lithospheric mantle and diamond potential of the western portion of the central Rae. Peridotite xenoliths containing enough fresh olivine have a median Mg# value of 92.5, indistinguishable from the median value of 92.6 typical of cratonic peridotites world-wide. Only of the 14 peridotitic xenoliths contain fresh garnet. Of these, garnet in one sample is classified as harzburgitic (G10), giving a minimum pressure of 4.7 GPa using the P38 geobarometer (38 mW/m2 model geothermal gradient), while garnets from three peridotites are classified as lherzolitic (G9). 52 garnets picked from concentrate have lherzolitic affinities. Lherzolitic diopsides from kimberlite heavy mineral concentrate yield a lithospheric thickness of ~ 200 km. The four garnet peridotite xenoliths and 49 peridotitic garnets from concentrate yield two distinct modes in mantle sampling depths using Ni thermometry, when projected to the Cpx geotherm. A cluster of samples from the higher Ca/Cr lherzolitic garnets equilibrated at 765 to 920 °C with a group of peridotitic garnets (50 % of xenoliths and 28 % of concentrate) from the lower Ca/Cr lherzolitic garnets with anomalously high Ti concentrations yielding super-adiabatic TNi values The aluminum-in-olivine thermometer applied to olivines filtered to be “garnet facies yielded a mantle sampling portion of the mantle cargo from the diamond stability field. A suite of pyroxenitic xenoliths are a feature of each Darby kimberlite target. New screening techniques indicate that these rocks likely originate close to the crust mantle boundary. Osmium isotope analyses of the Darby peridotites reveal whole-rock Re-depletion ages ranging from Mesoarchean to Paleoproterozoic. The pyroxenite xenoliths have very radiogenic Os isotope compositions and provide the first age information from pyroxenites/“eclogites” beneath the Rae craton. Their resulting Archean whole rock TMA ages are consistent with a Mesoarchean age of the western Central Rae lithosphere older than the lithosphere beneath the Repulse Bay block in the East section of the Rae craton (Liu et al., 2016. Precambrian Research 272). The highly depleted olivine compositions, thick cold lithosphere, and Archean ages of the Darby peridotite xenoliths clearly indicate the presence of 200 km thick cold cratonic lithospheric mantle beneath the western segment of the central Rae craton circa 540 Ma. The Archean model ages of most of the pyroxenites support this, notwithstanding the fact that some of these rocks could be sampling either crust or mantle lithologies very close to the crust-mantle boundary. Mantle sampling took place well into the diamond stability field at Darby.
45th. Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum, p. 65 abstract
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Giraffe
Abstract: Several Lac de Gras kimberlite pipes host thick accumulations of stratified post-eruptive lacustrine sediment and peat. Given the range of Lac de Gras kimberlite emplacement ages, these fills - though rare - provide a unique sedimentary archive of paleoenvironments during the sustained Early Cenozoic “greenhouse” interval, in a high-latitude region otherwise devoid of Phanerozoic sediment cover. Extensive exploration drilling has provided a valuable window into this unique sedimentary record, which would have otherwise remained covered by Quaternary glacial deposits. Our focus to date has been multidisciplinary study of the Giraffe pipe sediment fill: an ~80 m-thick sequence of post-eruptive lacustrine silt overlain by peat, which paints a remarkable picture of a humid-temperate Middle Eocene forest ecosystem on the Canadian Shield. Post-eruptive chronology is provided by interbedded distal tephra horizons, likely sourced from Alaska, that have been dated by glass fission-track and zircon U-Pb techniques. Paleoclimate proxies derived from pollen, wood cellulose oxygen isotopes, and biomarkers converge on reconstructed mean annual temperatures >17 °C warmer than present, with mean winter temperatures above freezing, and mean annual precipitation ~4x present. Two independent reconstructions of CO2 from well preserved conifer foliage suggest that this warming occurred under relatively modest atmospheric CO2 concentrations of 430-630 ppm. These findings provide direct field-based evidence for dramatic past arctic warming at CO2 concentrations that were well within the range of projections under “business-as-usual” emissions scenarios, underscoring the capacity for exceptional polar amplification of climate change under modest CO2 concentrations once both fast and slow feedbacks processes become expressed. Our studies at Giraffe pipe also highlight the scientific value of archived exploration drill core in the Lac de Gras kimberlite field, particularly with respect to pipes that are unremarkable for the purpose of diamond exploration.
45th. Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum, p. 67 abstract
Canada, Northwest Territories
geochemistry - indicator minerals
Abstract: Tracing surficial dispersal patterns of indicator minerals within glacial sediments in the main up-ice direction has greatly contributed to numerous mineral discoveries of economic value in the Northwest Territories. However, many cases have also reported perplexing scenarios of dispersal trains seemingly lacking a source, or known sources without a spatially associated dispersal train at the surface. These ‘special’ cases often hinder exploration efforts, and tend to remain poorly understood; yet these cases are becoming increasingly important to decipher as exploration moves into more complex terrains. We present an overview of our research done in the Lac de Gras area over the past few years in collaboration with the Northwest Territories Geological Survey and their partners investigating the effect of multiple ice flows, variable bedrock topography and drift thickness, and the complexities of glacial sedimentary environments on 2D and 3D mechanical (detrital) dispersion. Our research draws from surface and subsurface datasets from various sources at both the regional and local scales. We show that despite the occurrence of relatively long, continuous, surficial patterns extending in the direction of the latest-strongest ice flow event in the region, a subtle record of the time-transgressive glacial history is also frequently preserved. These records yield information about the net effect on sediment dispersion of multiple ice flow phases, bedrock geology, basal topography, and glacial depositional processes. Our findings suggest these geological factors played a key role in producing some of the most irregular and enigmatic dispersal patterns in the region. They also offer insights into how to best characterize and explain the signal (or lack thereof) from elusive buried sources of potential economic interest.
45th. Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum, p. 70 abstract
Canada, Northwest Territories
geochemistry - indicator minerals
Abstract: Kimberlite indicator mineral (KIM) concentrations in till are commonly used in glaciated areas such as Northwest Territories to identify glacial dispersal from a kimberlitic source. However, sampling of till that has been modified by post-depositional processes, or material that is not till, can obscure the original glacial dispersion and mislead exploration efforts. The recognition of subtle changes in material type or the occurrence of till modification is obstructed by periglacial processes that homogenize the landscape. Due to restrictions of scale, it is nearly impossible to identify and represent these subtle landscape variations in regional-scale surficial mapping. The uniform till cover depicted in the regional mapping does not reflect reality, and therefore does not provide the necessary surficial context to inform till sampling programs and evaluation efforts. The Northwest Territories Geological Survey and several private exploration companies have recognized the importance of identifying differences in material type and processes that can remobilize and alter the composition of till. Recent improvements in the availability of high-resolution imagery and digital elevation data have provided the means to perform more detailed surficial studies at a scale that is more applicable to diamond exploration. As a result, multiple high-resolution surficial mapping and associated sediment sample data evaluations have been initiated in and around the Lac de Gras region. These studies have reinforced that there is significant spatial variation in the suitability for till sampling, and found that subglacial meltwater corridors and glacial lakes were common. Furthermore, a many of the previously collected till samples were affected by these processes, which can have a significant influence on KIM concentrations and the shape of their dispersal patterns. Meltwater can truncate dispersals and concentrate heavy minerals. Glacial lakes can either dilute or concentrate heavy minerals depending on whether the environment was proximal or distal. Specific landform assemblages and characteristics have been documented that can be used to identify these dispersal-modifying processes, and used to produce a surficial context that is more suitable to exploration. This improved surficial context facilitates the collection of in situ till samples and the interpretation of existing surface sediment data resulting in lower-risk exploration targets.
45th. Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum, p. 78 abstract
Canada, Northwest Territories, Saskatchewan
deposit - Kelvin, Faraday, Pikoo
Abstract: Many kimberlite ore bodies are relatively small and the presence of overburden can make it challenging to intersect a kimberlite target during exploration drilling. If kimberlite is not intersected during drilling, it can be difficult to decide whether an existing kimberlite body has been missed or whether the geophysical target was not kimberlite. A preliminary spectroscopic study conducted in 2017 provides evidence that kimberlites with sizes exceeding 30 meters hydrate the adjacent country rock. The detection of such ‘hydration halos’ in barren country rock drill cores can provide crucial evidence for the existence of nearby undiscovered kimberlites. To gain a better understanding about the size and morphology of hydration halos around different kimberlite ore bodies, hyperspectral point data were collected from drill cores comprised of crustal rocks recovered in close proximity to known kimberlites (e.g., Kelvin, Farraday, and Pikoo kimberlites). The information obtained as a result of this study will likely serve as a foundation for the development of a rapid, low-cost kimberlite exploration tool that can help evaluate kimberlite potential in areas where kimberlite was not intersected during drilling.
45th. Annual Yellowknife Geoscience Forum, p. 82 abstract
Canada, Northwest Territories
geophysics
Abstract: As part of the Slave Province Geophysical, Surficial Materials and Permafrost Study, the Northwest Territories Geological Survey (NTGS) commissioned high resolution geophysical surveys in the Slave Geological Province (SGP). The high resolution aeromagnetic survey was flown from February to April 2017 and comprise 87,600 line-km of data flown at 100 m line spacing and nominal aircraft terrain clearance was 60 m with drape flying over the Central Slave craton block. The horizontal gradient magnetic and frequency domain EM (FDEM) survey was flown from February to March 2017 acquired at 75 m line spacing over 6 other blocks with nominal terrain clearance of 60 m to maintain bird height of 25 m, covering 4,580 line-km (Munn Lake, Margaret Lake, Zyena Lake, Lac de Gras West, Big Blue and Mackay Lake). The objective of this work is to develop multi-parameter models to help mineral exploration and mining companies better understand the range of geophysical signatures associated with kimberlites in the SGP. A regular geophysical-based approach for kimberlite exploration usually involves inverting geophysical data with limited geological input. In this contribution we present different ways of looking at the geophysical data and try to obtain a more thorough geological understanding out of it. The workflow starts with a complete GIS compilation of all the ancillary data available in the area: previous industry reports, geology, remote sensing, topographic layers. Secondly, we compute a number of interpretation sub-products from the total magnetic intensity data (tilt derivatives, analytic signal, and other edge detection routines). The next stage involves the computation of a susceptibility distribution from the FDEM data (Tschirhart et al, 2015). With this we are able to generate a magnetic model of the near surface susceptibility distributions, which are then subtracted from the observed data. The resultant map shows anomalous sources that could be associated to either remanent magnetization and/or deeper sources. Following the work of Sterritt (2006), post-emplacement alteration is ubiquitous in kimberlite pipes. Alteration results in production of secondary oxide minerals and alteration of primary oxide minerals to phases with different magnetic susceptibilities (e.g. non-magnetic iron oxides). This can lead to a dramatic increase of magnetic susceptibility due to serpentinization (Clark, 1997). On the other hand, remanent magnetization can change the polarity of the observed magnetic anomalies or even completely remove the expected signature due to an equal but opposite combination of remanent and induced magnetic components. Therefore, a thorough compilation of petrophysical and mineralogical data over kimberlites and altered rocks in the vicinity of known occurrences is critical for the geological understanding of the existing geophysical data. This contribution will show some preliminary processing and compilation work completed over the Slave province kimberlites using the newly acquired geophysical data.
Abstract: The Diavik Waste Rock Project consists of laboratory and field experiments developed for the investigation and scale-up of the geochemical evolution of sulfidic mine wastes. As part of this project, humidity cell experiments were conducted to assess the long-term geochemical evolution of a low-sulfide waste rock. Reactive transport modelling was used to assess the significant geochemical processes controlling oxidation of sulfide minerals and their dependence on temperature and sulfide mineral content. The geochemical evolution of effluent from waste rock with a sulfide content of 0.16 wt.% and 0.02 wt.% in humidity cells was simulated with the reactive transport model MIN3P, based on a conceptual model that included constant water flow, sulfide mineral content, sulfide oxidation controlled by the availability of oxidants, and subsequent neutralization reactions with carbonate and aluminosilicate minerals. Concentrations of Ni, Co, Cu, Zn, and SO4 in the humidity cell effluent were simulated using the shrinking core model, which represented the control of oxidant diffusion to the unreacted particle surface in the sulfide oxidation process. The influence of temperature was accounted for using the Arrhenius relation and appropriate activation energy values. Comparison of the experiment results, consisting of waste rock differentiated by sulfide mineral content and temperature, indicated surface area and temperature play important roles in rates of sulfide oxidation and release of sulfate and metals. After the model was calibrated to fit the effluent data from the higher sulfide content cells, subsequent simulations were conducted by adjusting only measured parameters, including sulfide mineral content and surface area.
Abstract: The abundance and distribution of halogens (F, Cl) are rarely recorded in kimberlites and therefore their petrogenetic significance is poorly constrained. Halogens are usually present in kimberlite rocks in the structure of phlogopite and apatite, but their original concentrations are never fully retained due to the effects of alteration. To provide new constraints on the origin and evolution of halogens in kimberlites and their melts, we present a detailed study of the petrography and geochemistry of the late-Cretaceous Group-I (or archetypal) Roger kimberlite (Ekati cluster, Canada). The studied samples contain abundant anhedral-to-euhedral olivine which is set in a crystalline groundmass of monticellite, phlogopite, apatite, spinel (i.e. magnesian ulvöspinel-magnetite (MUM), Mg-magnetite, pleonaste, Cr-spinel), and perovskite along with abundant secondary alteration phases (i.e. serpentine, garnet (andradite-schlorlomite), amakinite ((Fe2 +, Mg, Mn)(OH)2), calcite). The Roger kimberlite is characterised by the highest recorded F-content (up to 2688 ppm) of the Ekati cluster kimberlites, which is reflected by the preservation of F-rich phases, where bultfonteinite (Ca4(Si2O7)(F, OH)2) and fluorite commonly replace olivine. In order to examine the composition and evolution of the kimberlite melt prior to post-magmatic processes, we studied melt inclusions in olivine, Cr-spinel, monticellite and apatite. Primary multiphase melt inclusions in Cr-spinel, monticellite and apatite and secondary inclusions in olivine are shown to contain a diversity of daughter phases and compositions that are dominated by alkali/alkali-earth (Na, K, Ba, Sr)-enriched Ca-Mg-carbonates ± F, Na-K-chlorides and sulphates, phosphates ± REE, spinel, silicates (e.g. olivine, phlogopite, (clino)humite), and sulphides. Although alkali/alkali-earth- and halogen-bearing phases are abundant in melt inclusions, they are generally absent from the kimberlite groundmass, most likely due to ubiquitous effects of syn- and/or post-magmatic alteration (i.e. serpentinisation). Comparisons between halogens and other trace elements of similar compatibility (i.e. F/Nd and Cl/U) in the Roger kimberlite and their respective estimated primitive mantle abundances show that halogens should be a more significant component in kimberlites than typically measured. We propose that fluorine in the Roger kimberlite was magmatic and was redistributed during hydrothermal alteration by Ca-bearing serpentinising fluids to produce the observed bultfonteinite/fluorite assemblages. Based the compositions and daughter mineral assemblages in primary melt inclusions and reconstructed halogen abundances, we suggest that Cr-spinel, monticellite and apatite crystallised from a variably differentiated Si-P-Cl-F-bearing carbonate melt that was enriched in alkalis/alkali-earths and highly incompatible trace elements.
Abstract: Monticellite is a magmatic and/or deuteric mineral that is often present, but widely varying in concentrations in Group-I (or archetypal) kimberlites. To provide new constraints on the petrogenesis of monticellite and its potential significance to kimberlite melt evolution, we examine the petrography and geochemistry of the minimally altered hypabyssal monticellite-rich Leslie (Canada) and Pipe 1 (Finland) kimberlites. In these kimberlites, monticellite (Mtc) is abundant (25-45 vol%) and can be classified into two distinct morphological types: discrete and intergrown groundmass grains (Mtc-I), and replacement of olivine (Mtc-II). Primary multiphase melt inclusions in monticellite, perovskite and Mg-magnetite contain assemblages dominated by alkali (Na, K, Ba, Sr)-enriched Ca-Mg-carbonates, chlorides, phosphates, spinel, silicates (e.g. olivine, phlogopite) and sulphides. These melt inclusions probably represent snapshots of a variably differentiated kimberlite melt that evolved in-situ towards carbonatitic and silica-poor compositions. Although unconstrained in their concentration, the presence of alkali-carbonates and chlorides in melt inclusions suggests they are a more significant component of the kimberlite melt than commonly recorded by whole-rock analyses. We present petrographic and textural evidence showing that pseudomorphic Mtc-II resulted from an in-situ reaction between olivine and the carbonate component of the kimberlite melt in the decarbonation reactio. This reaction is supported by the preservation of abundant primary inclusions of periclase and to a lesser extent Fe-Mg-oxides in monticellite, perovskite and Mg-magnetite. Based on the preservation of primary periclase inclusions, we infer that periclase also existed in the groundmass, but was subsequently altered to brucite. We suggest that CO2 degassing in the latter stages of kimberlite emplacement into the crust is largely driven by the observed reaction between olivine and the carbonate melt. For this reaction to proceed, CO2 should be removed (i.e. degassed), which will cause further reaction and additional degassing in response to this chemical system change (Le Chatelier's principle). Our study demonstrates that these proposed decarbonation reactions may be a commonly overlooked process in the crystallisation of monticellite and exsolution of CO2, which may in turn contribute to the explosive eruption and brecciation processes that occur during kimberlite magma emplacement and pipe formation.
Gems & Gemology Lab Notes, Vol. 53, 4, pp. 479-481.
Canada, Northwest Territories
diamond notable - Foxfire
Abstract: The largest gem-quality rough diamond found in Canada, reported earlier in Gems & Gemology (Summer 2016 GNI, pp. 188-189), has revealed remarkable responses to excitation with long- and mid-wave UV light. This 187.63 ct diamond (figure 1) was extracted from the Diavik mine in the Canadian Arctic in the spring of 2015. Aptly named for the aurora borealis, the “Foxfire” displays unusual fluorescence and phosphorescence behavior upon exposure to ultraviolet light. As previously reported, this type Ia diamond has a high concentration of nitrogen impurities, a weak hydrogen-related absorption at 3107 cm-1, and typical "cape" absorption lines.
Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Interpretation, August T 299, 13p.
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Tli Kwi Cho
Abstract: The Tli Kwi Cho (TKC) kimberlite complex contains two pipes, called DO-27 and DO-18, which were discovered during the Canadian diamond exploration rush in the 1990s. The complex has been used as a testbed for ground and airborne geophysics, and an abundance of data currently exist over the area. We have evaluated the historical and geologic background of the complex, the physical properties of interest for kimberlite exploration, and the geophysical surveys. We have carried out 3D inversion and joint interpretation of the potential field data. The magnetic data indicate high susceptibility at DO-18, and the magnetic inversion maps the horizontal extent of the pipe. DO-27 is more complicated. The northern part is highly magnetic and is contaminated with remanent magnetization; other parts of DO-27 have a low susceptibility. Low densities, obtained from the gravity and gravity gradiometry data, map the horizontal extents of DO-27 and DO-18. We combine the 3D density contrast and susceptibility models into a single geologic model that identifies three distinct kimberlite rock units that agree with drilling data. In further research, our density and magnetic susceptibility models are combined with information from electromagnetic data to provide a multigeophysical interpretation of the TKC kimberlite complex.
Abstract: A comprehensive petrographic and in situ major and trace element study of rutile, ilmenite and Ti-magnetite was undertaken in six lower crustal xenoliths of metabasaltic (?underplate) and metasedimentary (subduction) origin from the Diavik kimberlites (central Slave Craton, Canada). The aims of the study were to improve our understanding of trace element incorporation into these Ti-minerals, and to use these systematics to obtain insights into lower continental crust formation and evolution. Abundant (oxy)exsolution of titanomagnetite lamellae, blocky rutile, as well as minor pleonaste and zircon in ilmenite from metabasaltic granulites are proposed to reflect cooling from magmatic or metamorphic temperatures and subsequent secular mantle cooling. This explains the large spread in Zr-in-rutile temperatures (>200°C) and may partly be responsible for the substantial heterogeneity of other trace element concentrations in rutile and ilmenite. Even after accounting for trace element heterogeneity and modal uncertainties, mass-balance calculations indicate that both Ti and Nb in lower crustal granulites are largely controlled by rutile and ilmenite. Rutile U-Pb data define discordia arrays that yield upper intercept ages broadly coincident with the 1•27 Ga giant Mackenzie dike swarm event, suggesting reheating of the lower crust above the rutile U-Pb closure temperature, whereas lower intercept ages roughly correspond to the age of Cretaceous to Eocene kimberlite magmatism. Subsequent cooling led to partial resetting and data spread along the concordia. Closer inspection reveals that inter-grain concentrations of elements that are compatible in rutile (Nb, Ta, W, U), but highly incompatible in the abundant silicate minerals (in equilibrium with melt), are heterogeneous and contrast with the more homogeneous concentrations of the transition metals (NiO, V). This may indicate that local reaction partners for diffusive homogenization of these element concentrations were absent. Nb/Ta is also highly variable at the sample scale. This may be explained by prograde growth from high-Nb/Ta mineral precursors (e.g. biotite) in the metasedimentary granulites and crystallization of the protoliths to the metabasaltic granulites from a mafic magma that had experienced fractionation of ilmenite with low Nb/Ta in a crustal magma chamber. Thus, (Fe)-Ti minerals represent high field strength element ‘islands’ in the granulite silicate matrix. The lack of homogenization and persistence of high-energy grain boundaries, such as exsolution lamellae, further indicate that the lower continental crust remained essentially dry and did not recrystallize, possibly since Neoarchaean metamorphism.
Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Interpretation, August T 313, 13p.
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Tli Kwi Cho
Abstract: We focus on the task of finding a 3D conductivity structure for the DO-18 and DO-27 kimberlites, historically known as the Tli Kwi Cho (TKC) kimberlite complex in the Northwest Territories, Canada. Two airborne electromagnetic (EM) surveys are analyzed: a frequency-domain DIGHEM and a time-domain VTEM survey. Airborne time-domain data at TKC are particularly challenging because of the negative values that exist even at the earliest time channels. Heretofore, such data have not been inverted in three dimensions. In our analysis, we start by inverting frequency-domain data and positive VTEM data with a laterally constrained 1D inversion. This is important for assessing the noise levels associated with the data and for estimating the general conductivity structure. The analysis is then extended to a 3D inversion with our most recent optimized and parallelized inversion codes. We first address the issue about whether the conductivity anomaly is due to a shallow flat-lying conductor (associated with the lake bottom) or a vertical conductive pipe; we conclude that it is the latter. Both data sets are then cooperatively inverted to obtain a consistent 3D conductivity model for TKC that can be used for geologic interpretation. The conductivity model is then jointly interpreted with the density and magnetic susceptibility models from a previous paper. The addition of conductivity enriches the interpretation made with the potential fields in characterizing several distinct petrophysical kimberlite units. The final conductivity model also helps better define the lateral extent and upper boundary of the kimberlite pipes. This conductivity model is a crucial component of the follow-up paper in which our colleagues invert the airborne EM data to recover the time-dependent chargeability that further advances our geologic interpretation.
Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Interpretation, August T 327, 14p.
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit -Tli Kwi Cho
Abstract: The geologically distinct DO-27 and DO-18 kimberlites, often called the Tli Kwi Cho (TKC) kimberlites, have been used as a testbed for airborne geophysical methods applied to kimberlite exploration. This paper, which is the last of a three-part series, focuses on extracting chargeability information from time-domain electromagnetic (TEM) data. Three different TEM surveys, having similar coincident-loop geometry, have been carried out over TKC. Each records negative transients over the main kimberlite units and this is a signature of induced polarization (IP) effects. By applying a TEM-IP inversion workflow to a VTEM data set we decouple the EM and IP responses in the observations and then recover 3D pseudo-chargeability models at multiple times. A subsequent analysis is used to recover Cole-Cole parameters. Our models demonstrate that both DO-18 and DO-27 pipes are chargeable, but they have different Cole-Cole time constants: 110 and 1160 ?s, respectively. At DO-27, we also distinguish between two adjacent kimberlite units based on their respective Cole-Cole time constants. Our chargeability models are combined with the den-sity, magnetic susceptibility and conductivity models from Papers I and II and allow us to build a 3D petrophysical model of TKC using only information obtained from airborne geophysics. Comparison of this final petrophysical model to a 3D geological model derived from the extensive drilling program demonstrates that we can characterize the three main kimberlite units at TKC: HK, VK, and PK in 3D by using airborne geophysics.
Journal of Geochemical Exploration, Vol. 188, pp. 194-215.
Canada, Northwest Territories
rare earths
Abstract: The Canadian Nechalacho rare metal deposit (Thor Lake, Northwest Territories) contains one of the of the world's largest high-grade resources of rare earth elements (REE) and a large niobium (Nb) resource (Avalon Rare Metals Inc., 2013). The deposit formed mainly by magmatic accumulation of eudialyte (a complex REE-Nb-zirconosilicate) at the top of a > 1.1 km deep and ~2 km diameter layered nepheline-sodalite syenite intrusion, the Nechalacho Layered Suite. The strongest enrichment of REE and Nb is contained in the eudialyte cumulates of the Basal Zone layer. However, a strong hydrothermal overprint modified the eudialyte cumulate layers and their host rocks to produce a variety of hydrothermal silicates and REE-Nb minerals. The primary objective of this study is to evaluate the spatial distribution of the alteration minerals and identify possible mineral zoning.
Mineralogy and Petrology, 10.1007/s00710 -018-0599-2, 14p.
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Diavik, Ekati
Abstract: Kimberlites from the Diavik and Ekati diamond mines in the Lac de Gras kimberlite field contain abundant large (>1 cm) clinopyroxene (Cr-diopside) and garnet (Cr-pyrope) crystals. We present the first extensive mineral chemical dataset for these megacrysts from Diavik and Ekati and compare their compositions to cratonic peridotites and megacrysts from the Slave and other cratons. The Diavik and Ekati Cr-diopside and Cr-pyrope megacrysts are interpreted to belong to the Cr-rich megacryst suite. Evidence for textural, compositional, and isotopic disequilibrium suggests that they constitute xenocrysts in their host kimberlites. Nevertheless, their formation may be linked to extensive kimberlite magmatism and accompanying mantle metasomatism preceding the eruption of their host kimberlites. It is proposed that the formation of megacrysts may be linked to failed kimberlites. In this scheme, the Cr-rich megacrysts are formed by progressive interaction of percolating melts with the surrounding depleted mantle (originally harzburgite). As these melts percolate outwards, they may contribute to the introduction of clinopyroxene and garnet into the depleted mantle, thereby forming lherzolite. This model hinges on the observation that lherzolitic clinopyroxenes and garnets at Lac de Gras have compositions that are strikingly similar to those of the Cr-rich megacrysts, in terms of major and trace elements, as well as Sr isotopes. As such, the Cr-rich megacrysts may have implications for the origin of clinopyroxene and garnet in cratonic lherzolites worldwide.
Mineralogy and Petrology, 10.1007/ s00710-018- 0589-4, 14p.
Africa, South Africa, Canada, Northwest Territories, Ontario
deposit - Venetia, Voorspoed, Gahcho Kue, Victor, Snap Lake
Abstract: De Beers kimberlite mine operations in South Africa (Venetia and Voorspoed) and Canada (Gahcho Kué, Victor, and Snap Lake) have the potential to sequester carbon dioxide (CO2) through weathering of kimberlite mine tailings, which can store carbon in secondary carbonate minerals (mineral carbonation). Carbonation of ca. 4.7 to 24.0 wt% (average?=?13.8 wt%) of annual processed kimberlite production could offset 100% of each mine site’s carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) emissions. Minerals of particular interest for reactivity with atmospheric or waste CO2 from energy production include serpentine minerals, olivine (forsterite), brucite, and smectite. The most abundant minerals, such as serpentine polymorphs, provide the bulk of the carbonation potential. However, the detection of minor amounts of highly reactive brucite in tailings from Victor, as well as the likely presence of brucite at Venetia, Gahcho Kué, and Snap Lake, is also important for the mineral carbonation potential of the mine sites.
Mineralogy and Petrology, doi.org/10.1007/s00710-018-0609-4 14p.
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Darby
Abstract: New geological and geophysical research on Canada’s Rae craton are providing an increasingly good baseline for diamond exploration. This study uses mantle xenoliths and xenocrysts from the Darby property, located ~200 km southwest of the community of Kugaaruk, Nunavut, to provide new information on the lithospheric mantle and diamond potential of the western portion of the central Rae. Peridotite xenoliths containing enough fresh olivine have a median Mg# value of 92.5, indistinguishable from the median value of 92.6 typical of cratonic peridotites world-wide. Only of the 14 peridotitic xenoliths contain fresh garnet. Of these, garnet in one sample is classified as harzburgitic (G10), giving a minimum pressure of 4.7 GPa using the P38 geobarometer (38 mW/m2 model geothermal gradient), while garnets from three peridotites are classified as lherzolitic (G9). 52 garnets picked from concentrate have lherzolitic affinities. Lherzolitic diopsides from kimberlite heavy mineral concentrate yield a lithospheric thickness of ~ 200 km. The four garnet peridotite xenoliths and 49 peridotitic garnets from concentrate yield two distinct modes in mantle sampling depths using Ni thermometry, when projected to the Cpx geotherm. A cluster of samples from the higher Ca/Cr lherzolitic garnets equilibrated at 765 to 920 °C with a group of peridotitic garnets (50 % of xenoliths and 28 % of concentrate) from the lower Ca/Cr lherzolitic garnets with anomalously high Ti concentrations yielding super-adiabatic TNi values The aluminum-in-olivine thermometer applied to olivines filtered to be “garnet facies yielded a mantle sampling portion of the mantle cargo from the diamond stability field. A suite of pyroxenitic xenoliths are a feature of each Darby kimberlite target. New screening techniques indicate that these rocks likely originate close to the crust mantle boundary. Osmium isotope analyses of the Darby peridotites reveal whole-rock Re-depletion ages ranging from Mesoarchean to Paleoproterozoic. The pyroxenite xenoliths have very radiogenic Os isotope compositions and provide the first age information from pyroxenites/“eclogites” beneath the Rae craton. Their resulting Archean whole rock TMA ages are consistent with a Mesoarchean age of the western Central Rae lithosphere older than the lithosphere beneath the Repulse Bay block in the East section of the Rae craton (Liu et al., 2016. Precambrian Research 272). The highly depleted olivine compositions, thick cold lithosphere, and Archean ages of the Darby peridotite xenoliths clearly indicate the presence of 200 km thick cold cratonic lithospheric mantle beneath the western segment of the central Rae craton circa 540 Ma. The Archean model ages of most of the pyroxenites support this, notwithstanding the fact that some of these rocks could be sampling either crust or mantle lithologies very close to the crust-mantle boundary. Mantle sampling took place well into the diamond stability field at Darby.
Mineralogy and Petrology, doi.org/10.1007/s00710-018-0607-6 16p.
Canada, Northwest Territories, South America, Brazil
deposit - Ekati, Grizzly, Kaola, Limpeza-18, Tres Ranchos-04, Kaalvallei, Samada, New Robinson
Abstract: Olivine in kimberlites can provide unique insights into magma petrogenesis, because it is the most abundant xenocrystic phase and a stable magmatic product over most of the liquid line of descent. In this study we examined the petrography and chemistry of olivine in kimberlites from different tectonic settings, including the Slave craton, Canada (Ekati: Grizzly, Koala), the Brasilia mobile belt (Limpeza-18, Tres Ranchos-04), and the Kaapvaal craton, South Africa (Kaalvallei: Samada, New Robinson). Olivine cores display a wide range of compositions (e.g., Mg#?=?78-95). The similarity in olivine composition, resorption of core zones and inclusions of mantle-derived phases, indicates that most olivine cores originated from the disaggregation of mantle peridotites, including kimberlite-metasomatised lithologies (i.e. sheared lherzolites and megacrysts). Olivine rims typically show a restricted range of Mg#, with decreasing Ni and increasing Mn and Ca contents, a characteristic of kimberlitic olivine worldwide. The rims host inclusions of groundmass minerals, which implies crystallisation just before and/or during emplacement. There is a direct correlation between olivine rim composition and groundmass mineralogy, whereby high Mg/Fe rims are associated with carbonate-rich kimberlites, and lower Mg/Fe rims are correlated with increased phlogopite and Fe-bearing oxide mineral abundances. There are no differences in olivine composition between explosive (Grizzly) and hypabyssal (Koala) kimberlites. Olivine in kimberlites also displays transitional zones and less common internal zones, between cores and rims. The diffuse transitional zones exhibit intermediate compositions between cores and rims, attributed to partial re-equilibration of xenocrystic cores with the ascending kimberlite melt. In contrast, internal zones form discrete layers with resorbed margins and restricted Mg# values, but variable Ni, Mn and Ca concentrations, which indicates a discrete crystallization event from precursor kimberlite melts at mantle depths. Overall, olivine exhibits broadly analogous zoning in kimberlites worldwide. Variable compositions for individual zones relate to different parental melt compositions rather than variations in tectonic setting or emplacement mechanism.
Mineralogy and Petrology, doi.org/10.1007/ s00710-018-0621-8 16p.
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Kelvin, Faraday
Abstract: The Kennady North Project kimberlites (Northwest Territories of Canada) comprises multiple shallow dipping dykes and several volcaniclastic bodies that have an unusual shallow plunging geometry and complex "pipe" shapes that are termed chonoliths. The detailed exploration of the entire system provides exceptional evidence for subterranean volcanic conduit growth processes. The possible processes leading to the development of the kimberlite bodies are discussed, with emphasis on the importance of the subsurface intrusive system geometry and the local stress tensor. Emplacement into a locally compressive stress regime (i.e. ?1 and ?2 inclined at a low angle to surface) could change the kimberlite emplacement geometries to that observed at Kennady North. Models are proposed for the development of the chonoliths, to emphasize aspects of the growth of kimberlite systems that are not well understood. The conclusions challenge or evolve current emplacement models and should influence kimberlite exploration and resource definition assumptions.
Abstract: Carbonates in fresh hypabyssal kimberlites worldwide have been studied to understand their origin [i.e. primary magmatic (high T) versus deuteric (‘low T’) versus hydrothermal/alteration (‘low T’)] and identify optimal strategies for petrogenetic studies of kimberlitic carbonates. The approach presented here integrates detailed textural characterisation, cathodoluminescence (CL) imaging, in situ major- and trace-element analysis, as well as in situ Sr-isotope analysis. The results reveal a wide textural diversity. Calcite occurs as fine-grained groundmass, larger laths, segregations, veins or as a late crystallising phase, replacing olivine or early carbonates. Different generations of carbonates commonly coexist in the same kimberlite, each one defined by a characteristic texture, CL response and composition (e.g., variable Sr and Ba concentrations). In situ Sr isotope analysis revealed a magmatic signature for most of the carbonates, based on comparable 87Sr/86Sr values between these carbonates and the coexisting perovskite, a robust magmatic phase. However, this study also shows that in situ Sr isotope analysis not always allow distinction between primary (i.e., magmatic) and texturally secondary carbonates within the same sample. Carbonates with a clear secondary origin (e.g., late-stage veins) occasionally show the same moderately depleted 87Sr/86Sr ratios of primary carbonates and coexisting perovskite (e.g., calcite laths-shaped crystals with 87Sr/86Sr values identical within uncertainty to those of vein calcite in the De Beers kimberlite). This complexity emphasises the necessity of integrating detailed petrography, geochemical and in situ Sr isotopic analyses for an accurate interpretation of carbonate petrogenesis in kimberlites. Therefore, the complex petrogenesis of carbonates demonstrated here not only highlights the compositional variability of kimberlites, but also raises concerns about the use of bulk-carbonate C-O isotope studies to characterise the parental melt compositions. Conversely, our integrated textural and in situ study successfully identifies the most appropriate (i.e. primary) carbonates for providing constraints on the isotopic parameters of parental kimberlite magmas.
Abstract: We present the joint interpretation of airborne electromagnetic and aeromagnetic data, acquired to study kimberlite pipes. We analyse the data surveyed in 2005 over Drybones Bay, Archean Slave Province of the Northwest Territories, northern Canada. This area hosts a recently discovered kimberlite province with >150 kimberlite pipes. Magnetic and electromagnetic data were each one modelled by 1D inversion. For magnetic data we inverted vertical soundings built through upward continuations of the measured data at various altitudes. The validity of the method was prior verified by tests on synthetic data. Electromagnetic data were processed and inverted using the modified AarhusINV code, with Cole-Cole modelling, in order to take into account induced polarization effects, consisting in negative voltages and otherwise skewed transients. The integrated study of the two kinds of data has led to a better understanding of the structures at depth, even though the comparison between the magnetic and the electromagnetic models shows the different sensitivity of the two methods with respect to the geological structure at Drybones Bay.
Abstract: A geometrically quantitative plate-kinematic model, based on paleomagnetism, for the initial assembly of Laurentia has taken form in the past few decades. Within this framework, there remains but one problematic interval of data predominantly from the Slave craton, which is the 1.96-1.87?Ga Coronation apparent polar wander path (APWP). The Coronation APWP shows large (?110°) back-and-forth oscillations that are difficult to explain in terms of plate motion. Nonetheless, poles from the Coronation APWP have been incorporated in various paleogeographic reconstructions of Laurentia and the supercontinent Nuna, pointing to the importance of testing its veracity. In this study, we conducted a detailed paleomagnetic and rock magnetic study of the ca. 1.87?Ga Pearson Formation, East Arm of Great Slave Lake, Northwest Territories, Canada. Our results show that Pearson Formation yields a characteristic remanent magnetization carried by single-domain or small pseudo-single-domain magnetite. The age of the magnetization is constrained to be older than Paleoproterozoic deformation and is interpreted as primary. Paleomagnetic declinations reveal a one-to-one correlation with local structural attitudes, indicating that some small blocks in the fold belt likely experienced significant (?60°) vertical-axis rotations, presumably related to large dextral displacements along the McDonald Fault system. Alternative explanations, such as true polar wander or a non-dipole magnetic field, are considered less parsimonious for the data presented here. It is suspected that some existing Christie Bay Group poles (the Stark and Tochatwi Formations), which were sampled in areas with anomalous structural attitudes and differ from time-equivalent poles obtained from areas of the Slave craton far from major transcurrent faults, may similarly suffer from vertical-axis rotation. We suggest further study before using possibly rotated Christie Bay Group poles for paleogeographic reconstructions.
Abstract: Earth’s oldest felsic rocks, the 4.02 billion-year-old Idiwhaa gneisses of the Acasta Gneiss Complex, northwest Canada, have compositions that are distinct from the felsic rocks that typify Earth’s ancient continental nuclei, implying they formed through a different process. Using phase equilibria and trace element modelling, we show that the Idiwhaa gneisses were produced by partial melting of ironrich amphibolite host rocks at very low pressures, equating to the uppermost ~3 km of mafic crust. The heat required for such shallow melting is most easily explained through meteorite impacts. Hydrodynamic impact modelling shows that, not only is this scenario physically plausible, but the region of shallow melting appropriate to formation of the Idiwhaa gneisses would have been widespread. Given the predicted high flux of meteorites during the late Hadean, impact melting may have been the predominant mechanism that generated Hadean felsic rocks.
Africa, Zimbabwe. Australia, Canada, Northwest Territories, South Africa, Botswana
deposit - Murowa, Argyle, Diavik, Venetia, Orapa
Abstract: FTIR maps of diamond plates, cut through the centre of growth, contain abundant information about changing defect concentrations from core to rim. These data can, in principle, be interpreted in terms of the variation in conditions of diamond growth and the temperatures experienced by the diamond during the period of mantle residence between growth and exhumation. Many diamonds show multiple growth zones that can be observed by cathodoluminescence. Importantly, the combination of nitrogen concentration and nitrogen aggregation measured by FTIR can be used to determine whether the growth zones are of similar or very different ages (Kohn et al., 2016). In this study, we use automated fitting of several thousand individual spectra within each FTIR map to define a model temperature for each pixel using the Python program, QUIDDIT. We then use a two-stage aggregation model to constrain potential temperature-time histories for each diamond. To take full advantage of the temperature history recorded by zoned diamonds, radiometric ages of inclusions are required. If the growth ages of each zone and the date of exhumation are well-known, then a model temperature can be calculated for each zone. The combination of zone-specific ages and improved quality and processing of FTIR spectra is able to provide unique new insights into the thermal history of diamondbearing lithospheric mantle. For the first time we will be able to use the N defects in diamonds to work out whether a particular location in the lithosphere has heated or cooled over long periods of geological time. The implications for the mechanism of formation of lithosphere will be discussed. We will illustrate the approach using examples of zoned diamonds from Murowa (Zimbabwe), Argyle (Australia), Diavik (Canada), Venetia (South Africa) and Orapa (Botswana).
Pure and Applied Physics, Vol. 175, 6, pp. 2141-2151.
Canada, Northwest Territories
mining
Abstract: Kimberlite is an igneous rock which sometimes bears diamonds. Most of the diamonds mined in the world today are found in kimberlite ores. Burst potential in kimberlite has not been investigated, because kimberlite is mostly mined using open-pit mining, which poses very little threat of rock bursting. However, as the mining depth keeps increasing, the mines convert to underground mining methods, which can pose a threat of rock bursting in kimberlite. This paper focuses on the burst potential of kimberlite at a diamond mine in northern Canada. A combined model with the methods of principal component analysis (PCA) and fuzzy comprehensive evaluation (FCE) is developed to process data from 12 different locations in kimberlite pipes. Based on calculated 12 fuzzy evaluation vectors, 8 locations show a moderate burst potential, 2 locations show no burst potential, and 2 locations show strong and violent burst potential, respectively. Using statistical principles, a Mahalanobis distance is adopted to build a comprehensive fuzzy evaluation vector for the whole mine and the final evaluation for burst potential is moderate, which is verified by a practical rockbursting situation at mine site.
Abstract: Diamonds containing fluid inclusions provide the most direct samples of upper mantle fluids. In eclogites, diamond can form by pH drop during fluid-rock interaction. However, in peridotites, the cause of the chemical evolution of the fluids and minerals, including the wide range of observed salinities involved, are still unclear. Here we used new experimental calibrations of the Deep Earth Water model involving organic and inorganic complexes of the major rockforming elements to show that fluid mixing can cause diamond formation in the peridotitic environment. Models of the saline and carbonatitic fluid inclusion compositions consistent with the chemistry of measured solid inclusions in Panda diamonds were used to simulate the irreversible, chemical mass transfer when a carbonatitic fluid infiltrates harzburgite containing a saline fluid at 950°C and 4.5 GPa. Simultaneous oxidation of aqueous hydrocarbons in the peridotitic fluid and reduction of the organic acid anion formate as well as bicarbonate in the carbonatitic fluid during mixing and reaction with harzburgite resulted in the formation of diamond, olivine, and garnet, and increases in the logfo2 and pH. Olivine was predicted to become more Ferich and garnet more Ca and Fe-rich with reaction progress, in agreement with reported temporal trends in the composition of mineral inclusions from octahedral cores to coated rims on Panda diamonds. Aqueous phase concentrations of all elements changed consistent with measured trends in fluid inclusion compositions from saline to less saline. For comparison, we also simulated a saline fluid infiltrating a harzburgite containing a carbonatitic fluid. Diamond again formed, but the compositional trends of the silicate minerals and the trend of salinity with reaction progress were all in the opposite direction to data from the Panda diamonds. Overall, our study strongly suggests that mixing of fluids containing carbon from both reduced and oxidized sources, and simultaneous reaction with harzburgite can cause precipitation of diamond, without the need for triggering by temperature or pressure changes, while adding Ca and Fe to the sub-lithospheric mantle.
Abstract: The Diavik Waste Rock Project, located in a region of continuous permafrost in northern Canada, includes complementary field and laboratory experiments with the purpose of investigating scale-up techniques for the assessment of the geochemical evolution of mine waste rock at a large scale. As part of the Diavik project, medium-scale field experiments (?1.5?m high active zone lysimeters) were conducted to assess the long term geochemical evolution and drainage of a low-sulfide waste rock under a relatively simple (i.e. constrained by the container) flow regime while exposed to atmospheric conditions. A conceptual model, including the most significant processes controlling the sulfide-mineral oxidation and weathering of the associated host minerals as observed in a laboratory humidity cell experiment, was developed as part of a previous modelling study. The current study investigated the efficacy of scaling the calibrated humidity cell model to simulate the geochemical evolution of the active zone lysimeter experiments. The humidity cell model was used to simulate the geochemical evolution of low-sulfide waste rock with S content of 0.053?wt.% and 0.035?wt.% (primarily pyrrhotite) in the active zone lysimeter experiments using the reactive transport code MIN3P. Water flow through the lysimeters was simulated using temporally variable infiltration estimated from precipitation measurements made within 200?m of the lysimeters. Flow parameters and physical properties determined during previous studies at Diavik were incorporated into the simulations to reproduce the flow regime. The geochemical evolution of the waste-rock system was simulated by adjustment of the sulfide-mineral content to reflect the values measured at the lysimeters. The temperature dependence of the geochemical system was considered using temperature measurements taken daily, adjacent to the lysimeters, to correct weathering rates according to the Arrhenius equation. The lysimeter simulations indicated that a model developed from simulations of laboratory humidity cell experiments, incorporating detailed representations of temporally variable temperature and water infiltration, can be scaled to provide a reasonable assessment of geochemical evolution of the medium-scale field experiments.
Abstract: The geochemical evolution of mine-waste rock often includes concurrent acid generation and neutralization processes. Deposition of mine-waste rock in large, oxygenated, and partially saturated piles can result in release of metals and decreased pH from weathering of sulfide minerals. Acid neutralization processes can often mitigate metals and pH impacts associated with sulfide oxidation. The Diavik Waste Rock Project included large field experiments (test piles built in 2006) conducted to characterize weathering of sulfide waste rock at a scale representative of full size waste-rock piles. Water samples from the unsaturated interior of one of the test piles, constructed of waste rock with ~0.05 wt.% S, were collected using soil water solution samplers and drains at the base of the pile. Field observations indicated pH decreased throughout the depth of the pile during 2008 and 2009 and that carbonate mineral buffering was entirely depleted by 2011 or 2012. Carbonate mineral exhaustion was accompanied by increased concentrations of dissolved Al and Fe in effluent samples collected at the basal drains. These results suggest that dissolution of Al and Fe(oxy)hydroxides occurred after the depletion of carbonate minerals following an acid neutralization sequence that is similar to observations made by previous researchers. A conceptual model of acid neutralization proceses within the pile, developed using physical and geochemical measurements conducted from 2008 to 2012, was used to inform reactive transport simulations conducted in 2017 to quantify the dominant acid neutralization processes within the test pile interior. Reactive transport simulations indicate that the conceptual model developed using the results of field samples provides a reasonable assessment of the evolution of the acid neutralization sequence.
Mineralogy and Petrology, doi.org/10.1007/s00710-018-0631-6 13p.
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Kelvin
Abstract: The early Cambrian to late Neoproterozoic Kelvin kimberlite pipe is located in the southeast of the Archean Slave Craton in northern Canada, eight km northeast of the Gahcho Kué diamond mine. Kelvin was first discovered in 2000 by De Beers Canada. Subsequent exploration undertaken by Kennady Diamonds Inc. between 2012 and 2016 resulted in the discovery of significant thicknesses of volcaniclastic kimberlite that had not previously been observed. Through extensive delineation drilling Kelvin has been shown to present an atypical, steep-sided inclined L-shaped pipe-like morphology with an overall dip of 15 to 20°. With a surface expression of only 0.08 ha Kelvin dips towards the northwest before turning north. The body (which remains open at depth) has been constrained to a current overall strike length of 700 m with varying vertical thickness (70 to 200 m) and width (30 to 70 m). Detailed core logging, petrography and microdiamond analysis have shown that the pipe infill comprises several phases of sub-horizontally oriented kimberlite (KIMB1, KIMB2, KIMB3, KIMB4, KIMB7 and KIMB8) resulting from multiple emplacement events. The pipe infill is dominated by Kimberley-type pyroclastic kimberlite or “KPK”, historically referred to as tuffisitic kimberlite breccia or “TKB”, with less common hypabyssal kimberlite (HK) and minor units with textures transitional between these end-members. An extensive HK sheet complex surrounds the pipe. The emplacement of Kelvin is believed to have been initiated by intrusion of this early sheet system. The main pipe-forming event and formation of the dominant KPK pipe infill, KIMB3, was followed by late stage emplacement of additional minor KPK and a hypabyssal to transitional-textured phase along the upper contact of the pipe, cross-cutting the underlying KIMB3. Rb-Sr age dating of phlogopite from a late stage phase has established model ages of 531 ± 8 Ma and 546 ± 8 Ma. Texturally and mineralogically, the Kelvin kimberlite is similar to other KPK systems such as the Gahcho Kué kimberlites and many southern African kimberlites; however, the external morphology, specifically the sub-horizontal inclination of the pipe, is unique. The morphology of Kelvin and the other kimberlites in the Kelvin-Faraday cluster defines a new type of exploration target, one that is likely not unique to the Kennady North Project area. Extensive evaluation work by Kennady Diamonds Inc. has resulted in definition of a maiden Indicated Mineral Resource for Kelvin of 8.5 million tonnes (Mt) of kimberlite at an average grade of 1.6 carats per tonne (cpt) with an average diamond value of US$ 63 per carat (ct).
Mineralogy and Petrology, doi.org/10.1007/ s00710-018-0630-7 14p.
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Diavik
Abstract: The Diavik Diamond Mine in the NWT of Canada has produced in excess of 100 million carats from 3 kimberlite pipes since mining commenced in 2002. Here, we present new findings from deep (>400 m below surface) mining, sampling and drilling work in the A154N kimberlite volcano that require a revision of previous geological and emplacement models and provide a window into how the sub-continental lithospheric mantle (SCLM) below Diavik was sampled by kimberlite magmas through time. Updated internal geological models feature two volcanic packages interpreted to represent two successive cycles of explosive eruption followed by active and passive sedimentation from a presumed crater-rim, both preceded and followed by intrusions of coherent kimberlite. Contact relationships apparent among the geological units allow for a sequential organization of as many as five temporally-discrete emplacement events. Representative populations of mantle minerals extracted from geological units corresponding to four of the emplacement events at A154N are analyzed for major and trace elements, and provide insights into the whether or not kimberlites randomly sample from the mantle. Two independent geothermometers using clinopyroxene and garnet data indicate similar source depths for clinopyroxenes and G9 garnets (130-160 km), and suggest deeper sampling with time for both clinopyroxene and garnets. Harzburgite is limited to 110-160 km, and appears more prevalent in early, low-volume events. Variable ratios of garnet parageneses from the same depth horizons suggest random sampling by passing magmas, but deeper garnet sampling through time suggests early preferential sampling of shallow/depleted SCLM. Evaluations of Ti, Zr, Y and Ga over the range of estimated depths support models of the SCLM underlying the central Slave terrane.
Abstract: Two-station surface-wave analysis was used to measure Rayleigh-wave phase velocities between 105 station pairs in western Canada, straddling the boundary between the tectonically active Cordillera and the adjacent stable craton. Major variations in phase velocity are seen across the boundary at periods from 15 to 200 s, periods primarily sensitive to upper mantle structure. Tomographic inversion of these phase velocities was used to generate phase velocity maps at these periods, indicating a sharp contrast between low-velocity Cordilleran upper mantle and high-velocity cratonic lithosphere. Depth inversion along selected transects indicates that the Cordillera-craton upper mantle contact varies in dip along the deformation front, with cratonic lithosphere of the Taltson province overthrusting Cordilleran asthenosphere in the northern Cordillera, and Cordilleran asthenosphere overthrusting Wopmay lithosphere further south. Localized high-velocity features at sub-lithospheric depths beneath the Cordillera are interpreted as Farallon slab fragments, with the gap between these features indicating a slab window. A high-velocity feature in the lower lithosphere of the Slave province may be related to Proterozic or Archean subduction.
Geophysical Research Letters, orchid.org/ 0000-0001-9945-6945
Canada, Northwest Territories
permafrost
Abstract: The origin of the complex pattern of SKS splitting over the western United States (U.S.) remains a long-lasting debate, where a model that simultaneously matches the various SKS features is still lacking. Here we present a series of quantitative geodynamic models with data assimilation that systematically evaluate the influence of different lithospheric and mantle structures on mantle flow and seismic anisotropy. These tests reveal a configuration of mantle deformation more complex than ever envisioned before. In particular, we find that both lithospheric thickness variations and toroidal flows around the Juan de Fuca slab modulate flow locally, but their co-existence enhances large-scale mantle deformation below the western U.S. The ancient Farallon slab below the east coast pulls the western U.S. upper mantle eastward, spanning the regionally extensive circular pattern of SKS splitting. The prominent E-W oriented anisotropy pattern within the Pacific Northwest reflects the existence of sustaining eastward intrusion of the hot Pacific oceanic mantle to beneath the continental interior, from within slab tears below Oregon to under the Snake River Plain and the Yellowstone caldera. This work provides an independent support to the formation of intra-plate volcanism due to intruding shallow hot mantle instead of a rising mantle plume.
Abstract: Earth’s oldest evolved (felsic) rocks, the 4.02-billion-year-old Idiwhaa gneisses of the Acasta Gneiss Complex, northwest Canada, have compositions that are distinct from the felsic rocks that typify Earth’s ancient continental nuclei, implying that they formed through a different process. Using phase equilibria and trace element modelling, we show that the Idiwhaa gneisses were produced by partial melting of iron-rich hydrated basaltic rocks (amphibolites) at very low pressures, equating to the uppermost ~3?km of a Hadean crust that was dominantly mafic in composition. The heat required for partial melting at such shallow levels is most easily explained through meteorite impacts. Hydrodynamic impact modelling shows not only that this scenario is physically plausible, but also that the region of shallow partial melting appropriate to formation of the Idiwhaa gneisses would have been widespread. Given the predicted high flux of meteorites in the late Hadean, impact melting may have been the predominant mechanism that generated Hadean felsic rocks.
Abstract: The role of fluid(s) in the formation of different lithological facies of kimberlites is still poorly understood. The uncertainty in the composition of kimberlite melts hampers understanding the composition of volatiles, the depth of exsolution, and the effect on magma ascent and fragmentation. Recent estimates of H2O and CO2 solubility in kimberlite-like magmas suggest very shallow exsolution of fluid, while many features of kimberlites indicate the presence of significant fluid fraction at depth. Deep magmatic fluid produces negative trigonal etch pits on natural diamonds, the characteristics of which depend on the temperature and composition of the fluid. Positively oriented trigonal etch pits are very rare on natural diamonds and are likely a feature of resorption events unique to only some kimberlite magmas. Here we present the first systematic study of positively oriented trigonal etch pits on natural diamonds from Snap Lake kimberlite dike, Northwest Territories, Canada. The study used 91 micro-diamonds selected from a population of 251 diamonds representative of all six kimberlite litho-facies identified in the Snap Lake dike. We established that unlike the majority of diamonds from kimberlite pipes in the Northwest Territories, every studied Snap Lake diamond shows positively oriented trigons. These trigons cover the whole diamond surface starting from the {111} faces and continuing over the resorbed edges. They overprint negatively oriented trigons and modify them into hexagons. Atomic force microscopy obtained detailed geometry of 154 positive trigons on 14 diamonds. Three distinct trigon morphologies dependent on the type of the crystal lattice defect were recognized. The point-bottomed shape and positive correlation between the depth and diameter of the individual pits suggest a high CO2 content in the fluid. Comparison with the existing experimental data on positive trigons implies resorption at low-pressure conditions in the 800-1000 °C temperature range by trapped magmatic fluid after the dike emplacement. The intensity of this late resorption event (and the size of the positive trigons) increases from the dike contact with the country rock into the interior of the dike. Such a late resorption event is absent in the majority of kimberlites, which form pipes, and might be a specific feature of hypabyssal kimberlite bodies (dikes). The absence of positive trigons on diamonds from the majority of kimberlites suggests very quick magma cooling below ?800 °C after the pipe emplacement, precluding the development of any late resorption features. Our study shows that for kimberlitic magmas, for which mineral chemistry is unable to provide a robust record of magmatic fluid, morphological details of dissolution features on the surface of diamond and other mantle-derived minerals can serve as a fluid proxy. Better constraints of the pressure, temperature, and oxygen fugacity of the reversal in the trigon orientation on diamond may help to reconstruct the emplacement path of geologically diverse kimberlite bodies.
Society of Economic Geology Geoscience and Exploration of the Argyle, Bunder, Diavik, and Murowa Diamond Deposits, Special Publication no. 20, pp.319-342.
Society of Economic Geology Geoscience and Exploration of the Argyle, Bunder, Diavik, and Murowa Diamond Deposits, Special Publication no. 20, pp. 253-266.
Bulk organic geochemistry and U-Pb zircon geochronology of the Wombat sedimentary fill.
2018 Yellowknife Geoscience Forum , p. 98-99. abstract
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Wombat
Abstract: The Wombat locality (64.73°N, 110.59°W) is a diamondiferous kimberlite in the Lac de Gras kimberlite field of Northwest Territories. Two drill cores, CH 93-29 and DDH 0-005, intersect the Wombat crater facies and include 195 m of well preserved, undisturbed lake sediment fill. Bulk sediment elemental analysis, C isotope composition, and Rock-Eval pyrolysis, together with inferences from microfossils, are used to characterize conditions of sedimentation and paleoenvironment in the maar lake. Bulk sediment C/N, hydrogen index (HI), and ?13C indicate material derived from C3 land plants dominates the sedimentary organic matter, with a minor algal contribution. The ?13C values range from -25.3 ‰ to -30.2 ‰ (average -26.6 ‰) and are typical for C3 land plants, with fluctuations in ?13C likely related to shifts in the proportions of land-derived material and algal organic matter. An overall trend of higher ?13C towards the top of the core suggests increasing autochthonous organic matter production. 18 samples analyzed by Rock-Eval pyrolysis all plot in the Type III kerogen field for HI vs. Tmax,with average Tmax values ~425 °C indicative of the low thermal maturity of organic matter. Total organic carbon (TOC) averages 3.6 wt.% and average total carbonate content is 14.1 wt.%, indicating bottom water anoxia and substantial carbonate input from weathering of overlying carbonate cover rocks, respectively. Together with well-preserved freshwater microfossils (e.g. diatoms, chrysophytes, synurophytes), the results indicate deposition in a non-marine setting. The age of the Wombat maar lake sediments is determined using MC-LA-ICP-MS U-Pb zircon geochronology from two distal rhyolitic tephra beds found in the core DDH 0-005, yielding a date of 82.97±0.60 Ma (MSWD = 1.7, n=18 of 33 grains analyzed). This minimum age suggests that Wombat kimberlite pipe emplacement occurred during the Late Cretaceous, with sedimentation in the maar beginning shortly thereafter. Though our geochronology is preliminary at this point, our findings from the Wombat pipe post-eruptive lake sediment fill provide direct evidence for a non-marine environment in the Lac De Gras area during the Late Cretaceous. Furthermore, microfossils in the Wombat pipe sediment fill likely include the oldest-known occurrence of freshwater diatoms.
Alteration of Mn ilmentite in Horton area of Lena West.
2018 Yellowknife Geoscience Forum , p. 102-103. abstract
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Lena West
Abstract: Mn-ilmenite was recognized as a kimberlite indicator mineral (KIM) in the Lena West diamond region of the Northwest Territories by Darnley Bay, Talmora and Sanatana. It includes compositions that match those found as inclusions in type IIa diamonds from Brazil and Venezuela that formed in the lower mantle. The recent determination that large, high value type IIa diamonds like the Cullinan, Koh-I-Nor, etc. also formed in the lower mantle increases the importance of Mn-ilmenites not only as a KIM resistant to tropical weathering but as a possible indicator of large high value stones. The Mn-ilmenite alteration products, pseudorutile (Fe2Ti3O9) and ferropseudobrookite (FeTi2O5) may also be used as KIMs and provide useful additional information.
Mn-ilmenites found as inclusions in diamonds range from 51 wt.% TiO2 (total wt.% 100) to 56 wt.% TiO2 (total wt.% 95). The shortfall in wt.% of the high TiO2 grains was ascribed by Kaminsky and Belasouva (2009) to some element not included in the analysis. The shortfall may also occur when some ferric iron is calculated as ferrous iron?
As most Lena West Mn-ilmenite analyses have high totals those with totals less than 96 wt.% have been considered an alteration product (“pseudorutile”). “Pseudorutile” is produced by the oxidation of FeO in ilmenite to Fe2O3 which results in an apparent loss of total weight percent when Fe is calculated as ferrous iron. A range of values approximating “ferropseudobrookite” with totals close to 100 wt.% is another alteration product of ilmenite with a loss of iron but without its oxidation to ferric iron.
The Horton area consists of a cluster of magnetic anomalies averaging ~ 200 m diameter east of a very large magnetic anomaly beneath Seahorse Lake. The Seahorse anomaly is at the focus of a train of kimberlite pathfinder elements coincident with a NNW trending KIM train characterised by Mn-ilmenite, picro-ilmenite and chromite. A parallel train of similar KIMs is focused Mn-ilmenite was recognized as a kimberlite indicator mineral (KIM) in the Lena West diamond region of the Northwest Territories by Darnley Bay, Talmora and Sanatana. It includes compositions that match those found as inclusions in type IIa diamonds from Brazil and Venezuela that formed in the lower mantle. The recent determination that large, high value type IIa diamonds like the Cullinan, Koh-I-Nor, etc. also formed in the lower mantle increases the importance of Mn-ilmenites not only as a KIM resistant to tropical weathering but as a possible indicator of large high value stones. The Mn-ilmenite alteration products, pseudorutile (Fe2Ti3O9) and ferropseudobrookite (FeTi2O5) may also be used as KIMs and provide useful additional information. Mn-ilmenites found as inclusions in diamonds range from 51 wt.% TiO2 (total wt.% 100) to 56 wt.% TiO2 (total wt.% 95). The shortfall in wt.% of the high TiO2 grains was ascribed by Kaminsky and Belasouva (2009) to some element not included in the analysis. The shortfall may also occur when some ferric iron is calculated as ferrous iron? As most Lena West Mn-ilmenite analyses have high totals those with totals less than 96 wt.% have been considered an alteration product (“pseudorutile”). “Pseudorutile” is produced by the oxidation of FeO in ilmenite to Fe2O3 which results in an apparent loss of total weight percent when Fe is calculated as ferrous iron. A range of values approximating “ferropseudobrookite” with totals close to 100 wt.% is another alteration product of ilmenite with a loss of iron but without its oxidation to ferric iron. The Horton area consists of a cluster of magnetic anomalies averaging ~ 200 m diameter east of a very large magnetic anomaly beneath Seahorse Lake. The Seahorse anomaly is at the focus of a train of kimberlite pathfinder elements coincident with a NNW trending KIM train characterised by Mn-ilmenite, picro-ilmenite and chromite. A parallel train of similar KIMs is focused on the cluster of smaller anomalies to the east. “Pseudorutile” is found over the cluster of anomalies that lie within the Horton River drainage and in the area north towards Darnley Bay. It was especially abundant with some unaltered Mn-ilmenite grains in the cuttings of a Packsack drill hole that penetrated a few feet of rusty coloured clay coincident with one of the anomalies. It does not appear to travel far. “Ferropseudobrookite” is found mostly west of the Horton River drainage, about 100 kilometers down-ice in the trains coming off the Seahorse anomaly and the cluster of smaller anomalies respectively. It represents the weathering of Mn-ilmenite in the upper part of anomalies that was carried furthest by glaciation indicating a resistance to mechanical wear. Mn-ilmenite is a useful KIM in areas of tropical weathering and is also an indicator of rare large high value diamonds. The distribution of pseudorutile and ferropseudobrookite suggests that the initial alteration of Mn-ilmenite is to pseudorutile and then ferropseudobrookite. The presence of one or the other is therefore a measure of the distance to the source.
Diamond potential of the Dehcho region. Horn Plateau
2018 Yellowknife Geoscience Forum , p. 104. abstract
Canada, Northwest Territories
geochemistry
Abstract: Our knowledge of the diamond potential in the Dehcho region has progressed significantly in the past decade. We now recognize that the central Dehcho represents a world class diamond exploration district. Continued scientific and industry work in the area have clearly shown that the diamond potential of this area may be of the same magnitude as the Lac de Gras region, which hosts active diamond mines. The evidence for high diamond potential in the Dehcho, includes abundant Kimberlite Indicator Minerals (KIM) from stream sediment sampling work, a diamond found in a stream sediment sample, 39 drilled kimberlites, some of which are diamondiferous, and numerous untested kimberlite-like geophysical anomalies from both government and industry data. Recent work at the University of Alberta has shown that deep Earth conditions in the area of the Horn Plateau may be as favorable for diamond generation and preservation as the Lac de Gras region and that there that there may be multiple generations of kimberlites present in the region. Given the relative paucity of exploration work and geoscience data in the Dehcho region, the available evidence is strongly suggestive of the possibility of the presence of diamond deposits.
Upper mantle structure underlying the diamondiferous Slave craton from teleseismic body-wave tomography.
2018 Yellowknife Geoscience Forum , p.104-105. abstract
Canada, Northwest Territories
tomography
Abstract: Cratons are, by definition, the most tectonically stable and oldest parts of the continental lithosphere on Earth. The Archean Slave craton is located in the northwestern part of the Canadian Shield. The propensity of diamondiferous kimberlite pipes in the central Slave craton raises many questions regarding their structural environment and source. Here, we provide the most robust teleseismic P and S body wave tomography models over the Slave craton region based on 20,547 P-wave delay times, 6,140 direct S-wave delay times and 3,381 SKS delay times. The P-wave model reveals an alternating pattern of relative positive and negative anomalies over a fine broad scale region within the central Slave craton. Furthermore, the P-wave model revealed two fine structures located in the lithosphere beneath the Lac de Gras kimberlite cluster, with relatively slow anomalies (B - C) that extend from 75 km to 350 km depths with an apparent dip to the north. These relatively slow P- and S-wave anomalies are associated with metasomatised regions within the lithosphere. The S-wave model displays a slow S-wave anomaly lying from 300 km depth to the transition zone beneath the central Slave craton. This anomaly is located beneath the Lac de Gras kimberlite cluster. We suggest that this anomaly is not the cause of the actual kimberlites at the surface since last eruption occurred 75-45 Ma ago but may be related to a potential kimberlite magma ascent in the asthenosphere.
The thermochemical conditions of the Diavik lower crust: a kimberlite-hosted xenolith study.
2018 Yellowknife Geoscience Forum , p. 25-26. abstract
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Diavik
Abstract: Thermochemical variables such as lower crustal heat production and Moho temperatures in cratonic regions offer critical insight in constraining the thermal and geodynamic evolution of the lithosphere. In this study, 15 lower crustal granulite xenoliths erupted via the A154N kimberlite at the Diavik mine in the NWT, Canada were studied to quantify the thermal properties of the local Moho and the effects of different heat production models on geotherm models. We quantitatively constrain the thermal properties of the local Moho and the effects of different heat production models on ancient Moho temperatures, the effects of crustal thickness on Moho temperatures, and potential lower crustal compositions. We evaluate the effect of these parameters on total lithospheric thickness estimates. In order to test the accuracy of deep crust thermal calculations, we estimated the ambient temperature of the lower crust at the time of kimberlite eruption through garnet-biotite Fe-Mg exchange geothermometry (Ferry & Spear, 1978). Rim compositions from touching garnet-biotite pairs were used in the calculations and yielded temperatures of 524 ± 77°C (n=20). These represent a maximum estimate of the ambient lower crustal temperature as the closure temperature of garnet-biotite Fe-Mg exchange between garnet and biotite may be higher than the ambient temperature. The primary objective of this study is to quantify lower crustal heat production and its effects on the thermal architecture of cratons. The concentrations of the main heat-producing elements (HPEs) U, Th, and K were quantified via LA-ICP-MS and EPMA in multiple mineral phases per xenolith. By combining these measurements with mineral modes, we derived reconstructed bulk-rock HPE concentrations that were utilized to calculate a range of lower crustal heat production values. This method is preferred over whole-rock analyses as 1) kimberlite is generally enriched in HPEs (Tappe et al. 2013) and can bias trace-element data for their xenoliths and 2) data on individual minerals allows for theoretical lower crustal compositions to be calculated on an idealized basis. A lower crust comprising exclusively mafic granulite (garnet, plagioclase, clinopyroxene ± orthopyroxene) provides a lower bound to heat production (0.07 ± 0.04 W/m3) whereas a lower crust made exclusively of high-grade metasedimentary rocks yields an upper bound (0.42 ± 0.08 W/m3). Both endmembers are present as xenoliths in the A154N kimberlite but mafic granulites predominate following the worldwide trend (Rudnick, 1992). We model the lower crust comprising 20% metasedimentary granulites and 80 % depleted mafic granulites, in accordance with the present xenolith collection. Using this preferred crustal model, we calculate an average heat production of 0.12 ± 0.05 W/m3) for the lower crust beneath Lac de Gras. Utilizing heat flow measurements (Russell et thickness estimates (Mareschal et al. 2004) in conjunction with these HPE determinations, the Moho temperature underlying A-154N can be calculated to be 502 ± 10°C. Using these values along with available mantle xenolith thermobaromtetry (Hasterok & Chapman, 2011) the geotherm is extrapolated to present a mantle potential temperature of 1365°C, at 200 km (FITPLOT, Mather et al, 2011).
Abstract: Over the past year, the Diavik Diamond Mine continued to make significant contributions through its mining operation on Lac de Gras, NWT. The mine is the second largest diamond mine in the NWT (and in Canada), but the largest producer of Canadian rough diamonds. Production has been augmented in 2018 with the official opening and start of mining from a new ore body called A-21.
Society of Economic Geology Geoscience and Exploration of the Argyle, Bunder, Diavik, and Murowa Diamond Deposits, Special Publication no. 20, pp. 343-358.
Direct discovery of concealed kimberlites with microbial community fingerprinting.
2018 Yellowknife Geoscience Forum , p. 36. abstract
Canada, Northwest Territories
mineral chemistry
Abstract: Mineral exploration in Canada is becoming increasingly complex as the majority of undiscovered commodities are likely deeply buried beneath significant glacial overburden and bedrock, reducing the effectiveness of many existing tools. The development of innovative exploration protocols and techniques is imperative to the continuation of discovery success. Preliminary experimentation has demonstrated the potential viability of microbial fingerprinting through genetic sequencing to directly identify the projected subcrop of mineralization in addition to the more distal entrained geochemical signatures in till. With the advent of inexpensive modern sequencing technology and big-data techniques, microbiological approaches to exploration are becoming more quantitative, cost effective, and efficient. The integration of microbial community information with soil chemistry, mineralogy and landscape development coupled with geology and geophysics propagates the development of an improved decision process in mineral exploration. Soils over porphyry, kimberlite, and VMS deposits have undergone microbial community profiling. These community-genome derived datasets have been integrated with trace metal chemistry, mineralogy, surface geology and other environmental variables including Eh and pH. Analyses of two kimberlites in the Northwest Territories show significant microbial community shifts that are correlated with subsurface mineralization, with distinctive microbial community profiles present directly above the kimberlite. The relationship between microbial profiles and mineralization leads to the use of microbial fingerprinting as a method for more accurately delineating ore deposits in glacially covered terrain. As databases are developed, there is potential for application as a field based technique, as sequencing technology is progressively developed into portable platforms.
Twenty years at the Ekati diamond mine: corporate social responsibility in action. CSR
2018 Yellowknife Geoscience Forum , p. 47-48. abstract
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Ekati
Abstract: The Ekati Diamond Mine in the Northwest Territories is owned and operated by Dominion Diamond Mines, the largest Canadian independent diamond producer. The Ekati mine was the first diamond mine in Canada, and started production in October 1998. In 2018 the operation is celebrating its twenty year anniversary. In the presentation, we will look back on some of the milestones and achievements of the last two decades. We will also discuss the commitment of the company to make a positive difference in the North through Corporate Social Responsibility initiatives, including support for education, training, community development, business opportunities and respect for the environment. Some examples include:
Community: Whether mining in northern Canada or sorting diamonds in India, we firmly believe that we can - and should - contribute to the social and economic well-being of the communities near our operations. Dominion's Indigenous partners and business operations are important stakeholders and we respect and value their rights, Traditional Knowledge (TK), and cultural heritage.
Hiring, Training and Development: Dominion Diamond Mines is committed to ensuring that the Ekati mine is a welcoming workplace for all employees and that we remain an employer of choice, particularly among northerners and northern Indigenous communities. The company has a number of initiatives and policies to encourage northerners, representatives from Indigenous groups, and women to enter the mining industry. Environment: Throughout the mining process, Dominion Diamond keeps the land and water of the Ekati mine clean and safe for people, plants, and animals. We understand the importance of the Arctic tundra environment and we are committed to mining in the safest, most environmentally responsible way.
2018 kimberlite discoveries at the Loki ( Lac de Gras, NT) and Mel ( Melville Peninsula, NU) diamond projects.
2018 Yellowknife Geoscience Forum , p. 49. abstract
Canada, Northwest Territories, Nunavut
deposit - Loki, Mel
Abstract: Details will be provided on the recent kimberlite discoveries at North Arrow's Loki (NT) and Mel (NU) diamond projects. In April of this year, North Arrow announced the discovery of a new kimberlite at its Loki Diamond Project in the Northwest Territories. The Project is located in the Lac de Gras region, approximately 30 km southwest, and 24 km west of the Ekati and Diavik diamond mines, respectively. The Loki claims are contiguous to the south and east of the diamondiferous Monument kimberlite cluster. The project hosts several prospective exploration targets, as well as five known kimberlites: EG-01, EG-02, EG-05 and EG-130. At the beginning of March 2018, North Arrow commenced drilling to test the EG-05 kimberlite, as well as other priority targets. On April 5th, intersections of the first new kimberlite (465) discovered at Lac de Gras in over five years were announced, along with new drilling of kimberlite EG-05. The Mel Diamond Project is located on the Melville Peninsula (NU), approximately 140 km south of the community of Hall Beach, and 210 km northeast of the community of Naujaat (formerly Repulse Bay). A prospecting program conducted in late 2017 focused on discovery of potential kimberlite bedrock sources to a well-defined kimberlite indicator mineral train in the north part of the project area. Kimberlite float and subcrop was found in two areas, including a surface exposure of the ML8 kimberlite. A 62.1 kg sample of ML8 yielded 23 diamonds larger than the 0.106 mm sieve size, including a single, colourless diamond larger than the 0.85 mm sieve size. The 2018 exploration program included 778 m of exploration drilling leading to the discovery of a new kimberlite (ML345) and defining the ML8 kimberlite over a 170 m strike length. In addition, 447 till samples were collected to better define existing and new targets within the project area, 14 magnetic ground survey grids were completed, and over 200 kg of kimberlite was collected from surface at ML8 for further microdiamond analysis.
McPeak, S., Samson, C., Lamontagne, M., Elliott, B.
Application of passive seismic methodologies to the determination of overburden thickness.
2018 Yellowknife Geoscience Forum , p. 111-112. abstract
Canada, Northwest Territories
geophysics - seismics
Abstract: Diamond mining is central to the economic development of the Canadian North. Innovative methods are needed to identify new prospective targets, as many of them are hidden beneath a thick overburden of glacial sediments. Passive seismics is an emerging method used to map the thickness of near-surface geological layers. Vibrations from distant earthquakes are used as a source of signal and data is processed to estimate the depth of the interface between the overburden and the underlying bedrock. In July 2018, four Tromino seismographs were taken to a study site located approximately ten minutes driving north of Yellowknife. A total of 146 Tromino measurements and associated GPS elevation measurements were taken at 6 m intervals along a dirt road. Elevation measurements were averaged over the course of four days and the survey line was approximately 740 m long. Results indicated that depth to bedrock decreases near outcrops and increases in valleys however; another geophysical dataset is needed to validate the passive seismic data.
Society of Economic Geology Geoscience and Exploration of the Argyle, Bunder, Diavik, and Murowa Diamond Deposits, Special Publication no. 20, pp. 287-318.
Bridging the gap through care and collaboration: before closure and after production. Snap Lake
2018 Yellowknife Geoscience Forum , pp. 60-61. abstract
Canada, Northwest territories
deposit - Snap Lake
Abstract: Wikipedia defines “Care and Maintenance” as a term used in the mining industry to describe processes and conditions on a closed mine site where there is potential to recommence operations at a later date. During a care and maintenance phase, production is stopped but the site is managed to ensure it remains in a safe and stable condition. De Beers Canada Inc. - Snap Lake Mine entered the Care and Maintenance phase after production ceased in December 2015. The partnership with Det'on Cho Corporation provides for a sustainable execution of care and maintenance activities, taking into consideration approved work plans, mine health and safety considerations and emergency response plans. The mine is currently in its third year of care and maintenance. After exploring the potential sale of the asset and assessing the possibility of reopening the mine, the decision to proceed toward closure was taken in December 2017, ushering Snap Lake into a period of extended care and maintenance (ECM) while a closure plan is developed and finalized. Activities during ECM include monitoring of water quality and other environmental parameters, collecting/treating effluent and making sure that water leaving the site meets water license compliance. Physical infrastructure such as the airstrip, roads, buildings, processed kimberlite containment facilities and associated surface water infrastructure such as sumps, pumps and channels need to be kept in a safe and operable condition. Camp infrastructure such as generators and machinery and equipment are also part of the Care and Maintenance program. Collaboration between the De Beers Canada owner's team and Det'on Cho Corporation resulted in the safe execution of the 2018 work plan which included freshet operations, continued progressive reclamation work, monitoring and maintenance activities. After a trial-run of reduced camp occupancy in the winter of 2017, the site was fully winterized and demobilized in September 2018 to allow for monthly site visits for the duration of the winter and planning for a spring 2019 start-up.
Mineralogy and Petrology, doi.org/10.1007/ s00710-018-0641-4 18p.
Canada, Northwest Territories
indicator minerals, geocthermobarometry
Abstract: The Central Mackenzie Valley (CMV) area of Northwest Territories is underlain by Precambrian basement belonging to the North American Craton. The potential of this area to host kimberlitic diamond deposits is relatively high judging from the seismologically-defined lithospheric thickness, age of basement rocks (2.2-1.7 Ga) and presence of kimberlite indicator minerals (KIMs) in Quaternary sediments. This study presents data for a large collection of KIMs recovered from stream sediments and till samples from two study areas in the CMV, the Horn Plateau and Trout Lake. In the processed samples, peridotitic garnets dominate the KIM grain count for both regions (> 25% each) while eclogitic garnet is almost absent in both regions (< 1% each). KIM chemistry for the Horn Plateau indicates significant diamond potential, with a strong similarity to KIM systematics from the Central and Western Slave Craton. The most significant issue to resolve in assessing the local diamond potential is the degree to which KIM chemistry reflects local and/or distal kimberlite bodies. Radiogenic isotope analysis of detrital kimberlite-related CMV ilmenite and rutile grains requires at least two broad age groups for eroded source kimberlites. Statistical analysis of the data suggests that it is probable that some of these KIMs were derived from primary and/or secondary sources within the CMV area, while others may have been transported to the area from the east-northeast by Pleistocene glacial and/or glaciofluvial systems. At this stage, KIM chemistry does not allow the exact location of the kimberlitic source(s) to be constrained.
Society of Economic Geology Geoscience and Exploration of the Argyle, Bunder, Diavik, and Murowa Diamond Deposits, Special Publication no. 20, pp. 267-286.
Abstract: The formation of continental crust makes Earth unique in our solar system. Yet, despite the importance of the continents for the evolution of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and life, the mechanism and timing of continental growth throughout Earth history is poorly known. The presently exposed continental crust has an age distribution that would suggest most of the mass grew relatively recently. However, the planet is constantly reworking itself, so age distributions are biased towards young ages. Therefore, geochemists must turn to isotopic tracers to infer the amount of crustal reworking that has occurred to form the presently exposed, or previously eroded, continental crust. The Slave craton, in the NWT, Canada, is in many ways a classic Archean craton. One reason for this is that the Slave craton preserves an extensive history of crust formation, spanning from 4.02 Ga to 2.58 Ga. This talk will focus on the petrology and isotope geochemistry of the oldest preserved rocks in the craton, rocks which form the deformed basement gneiss complex. These rocks preserve the oldest history of the craton and form the substrate upon which later geologic events occurred. Our record of crust formation indicates that the Slave craton basement gneisses record a major change in the mechanism of crust formation, a transition that represents a change from internal reprocessing in a setting analogous to modern Iceland, to crust formation in a setting more similar to modern continental-margin settings. This data is discussed in the context of global paradigms for crust formation throughout Earth history.
Ramping up from construction to operations: lessons learned at Gahcho Kue diamond mine.
2018 Yellowknife Geoscience Forum , p. 65. abstract
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Gahcho Kue
Abstract: Numerous glacial dispersal trains, spatially and compositionally associated to kimberlites, have been characterized and mapped in the Lac de Gras region, Northwest Territories (NT). However, a small number of these trains have yet to be associated with a source. Additionally, a number of known sub-cropping kimberlites do not have well-defined, spatially associated, trains of indicator minerals. These issues suggest that local factors may be important in controlling the occurrence, shape, and strength of a dispersal pattern and its spatial association with a kimberlite. Identifying these factors and understanding their effect on the dispersion of indicator minerals could provide a road map for finding additional diamondiferous kimberlites in the NT and elsewhere. Here we examine contrasting dispersal trains from south and southwest of Lac de Gras, as well as situations where the source of known dispersal trains (e.g., Coppermine Train) continue to elude exploration geologists. Using both surface and subsurface datasets, we find that the bedrock geology and topography of the source area, as well as those of the dispersal area, are potential key controls on the type and shape of dispersal patterns. Even across discontinuous drift and subdued shield relief we find that bedrock topography and lithology modulated the effect of glacial dynamics on till production and provenance. These 'bedrock factors' have interacted in various ways during Quaternary glaciations, in combinations unique to each case, to generate complex dispersal patterns in three dimensions. Accounting for these factors, using both surface and subsurface data, could enhance the success of drift exploration programs and improve their outcome in the glaciated shield terrains of northern Canada.
Ross, M., Kelley, S.E., Janzen, R., Stirling, R.A., Normandeau, P.X., Elliott, B.
Orphan and elusive glacial dispersal trains from kimberlites in the Lac de Gras area.
2018 Yellowknife Geoscience Forum , p. 65-66. abstract
Canada, Northwest Territories
geochemistry
Abstract: Numerous glacial dispersal trains, spatially and compositionally associated to kimberlites, have been characterized and mapped in the Lac de Gras region, Northwest Territories (NT). However, a small number of these trains have yet to be associated with a source. Additionally, a number of known sub-cropping kimberlites do not have well-defined, spatially associated, trains of indicator minerals. These issues suggest that local factors may be important in controlling the occurrence, shape, and strength of a dispersal pattern and its spatial association with a kimberlite. Identifying these factors and understanding their effect on the dispersion of indicator minerals could provide a road map for finding additional diamondiferous kimberlites in the NT and elsewhere. Here we examine contrasting dispersal trains from south and southwest of Lac de Gras, as well as situations where the source of known dispersal trains (e.g., Coppermine Train) continue to elude exploration geologists. Using both surface and subsurface datasets, we find that the bedrock geology and topography of the source area, as well as those of the dispersal area, are potential key controls on the type and shape of dispersal patterns. Even across discontinuous drift and subdued shield relief we find that bedrock topography and lithology modulated the effect of glacial dynamics on till production and provenance. These 'bedrock factors' have interacted in various ways during Quaternary glaciations, in combinations unique to each case, to generate complex dispersal patterns in three dimensions. Accounting for these factors, using both surface and subsurface data, could enhance the success of drift exploration programs and improve their outcome in the glaciated shield terrains of northern Canada.
Re-thinking diamond exploration tactics in the Slave Province: a surficial geology perspective. Lac de Gras area
2018 Yellowknife Geoscience Forum , p. 66-67. abstract
Canada, Northwest Territories
geochemistry
Abstract: It took several decades to develop the necessary understanding of glaciation, geochemistry and mineralogy to refine exploration strategies and find the first kimberlite in the Northwest Territories, Canada. These fundamental drift prospecting strategies followed by geophysics and drilling have been used to locate many kimberlite occurrences over the years. Indicator minerals in surface sediments are still the primary datasets used to identify kimberlite exploration targets; however, many of the kimberlite sources for the well-defined indicator mineral dispersals have been identified. Exploration must now focus on regions with more complex surficial geology where primary dispersal patterns in till are obscured by post-depositional modification. These patterns are largely defined using data from historical “˜till' surveys that often failed to properly scrutinize the sample media; reworked tills and other surficial materials were commonly collected. The regional surficial geology maps (e.g., 1:50,000 to 1:250,000) typically published by geological surveys to stimulate reconnaissance exploration in new areas are generally incapable of providing sufficient resolution to determine the genesis and post-glacial alteration of sample media or reconcile complex dispersal patterns. Furthermore, advances in analytical methods have yielded compiled datasets with results from multiple methods that are not always comparable. Without a new, more detailed and systematic approach to evaluating surface sediment data, exploration in areas with complex glacial, deglacial and post-glacial histories will be challenged to discover kimberlite. The accessibility, quality and variety of high-resolution aerial or satellite imagery and topographic data has improved significantly over the years, affording a more detailed interpretation of the surficial environment. These detailed interpretations have allowed us to evaluate historical data with a new perspective and target the collection of new, high-quality data. Throughout the Slave Province, we have tailored surficial interpretations to distinguish in-situ till from reworked till and other materials, which have altered dispersion and indicator mineral concentrations. Using examples from the Lac de Gras area, this presentation demonstrates how a detailed surficial framework, combined with an understanding of the varied analytical methods, is applied to historical datasets to refine indicator dispersal patterns and identify new exploration targets. By standardizing the data based on sediment genesis and transport mechanisms, the dataset becomes more suitable for statistical evaluation and anomaly threshold determinations that are unique to specific data subpopulations. As a result, anomaly contrasts are improved, and complex dispersals can be unravelled. In addition, areas with insufficient data coverage are identified and the necessary framework to complete informed, efficient infill or new sampling is provided. The examples we share highlight that there is no replacement for project-scale understanding of surficial geology and its varied effects on mineral dispersals in the development and interpretation of a surface sediment dataset used to identify kimberlite exploration targets.
Short hold time parameters. Diavik mine water treatment plant.
2018 Yellowknife Geoscience Forum , p. 74-75. abstract
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Diavik
Abstract: It is well known that it is very difficult to transport samples from remote locations to the laboratory and allow sufficient time to commence analysis within the prescribed short hold times for certain parameters. Also, the majority of published hold times are based on legacy as opposed to hard science. In an attempt to determine the validity of specific short hold times, a joint study between Diavik and Maxxam was undertaken. The purpose was to determine the stability of short hold time parameters over time using real samples from Diavik sites. Data from two sites will be presented. The first from the Diavik mine water treatment plant influent, which had relatively high levels of the target analytes. The second from a lake water sample with lower native levels of the target analytes. The parameters studied were ammonia (preserved and unpreserved), total nitrogen, nitrite, nitrate, phosphate, total phosphorus and turbidity. All target parameters have a prescribed 3-day hold time.1 pH was also monitored. Samples were collected by Diavik personnel in one-litre containers and extraordinary logistical measures were taken to get them to Maxxam's Burnaby laboratory as soon as possible. On receipt, they were immediately subsampled into appropriate containers. Each parameter (except pH and turbidity) was split into three containers: 1) as received; 2) low level spike added and 3) medium level spike added. All samples were analyzed within 3 at approximately 3-day intervals thereafter for a period of two weeks.
Siva-Jothy, W., Chinn, I., Stachel, T., Pearson, D.G.
Resorption features of macro and micro diamonds from Gahcho Kue.
2018 Yellowknife Geoscience Forum , p. 120. abstract
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Gahcho Kue
Abstract: Studies into the relationship between oxygen fugacity of mantle fluids/melts and etch features on diamond surfaces have shown specific fluid/melt compositions correspond to associated etch features. A classification scheme has been proposed to determine the fluid composition within a kimberlite by examining etch features associated with diamond surfaces as a proxy for fluid composition in an ascending diamondiferous kimberlite. A suite of 388 microdiamonds (defined as diamonds which pass through a 0.5 mm square mesh screen) and 88 macrodiamonds taken from various drill hole depths in the Hearne kimberlite and 88 inclusion-bearing macrodiamonds from the Gahcho Kué mine (NWT) were viewed under a secondary electron microscope for their surface features in accordance with this scheme. Two hundred and thirty specimens show shallow-depth etch features that can be easily classified: the main features observed were trigons and truncated trigons on the {111} faces and/or tetragons on the {100} faces (indicating etching by fluids of variable CO2:H2O ratios). Thirty-four specimens show deeper etched features that represent either extreme degrees of regular etching (such as deeply-etched tetragons), or corrosion type etching, wherein the diamond lattice is etched in a fluid-free melt. Variability between crystal habits exists between the size fractions studied, with cubic habits only being observed in the microdiamond population. This implies variable formation conditions for the two different diamond size fractions studied from Gahcho Kué. Among microdiamonds, surface textures associated with fluid-related etching are markedly more variable, with truncated trigons, tetragons, and both positive and negative trigons being observed. However, these often occur in combination with features showing a large variability in their depth to size ratio between samples, which is typically caused by mantle-related etching. These observations suggest repeated interaction of fluids/melts with the Gahcho Kué diamond population, with at least some of the fluids affecting the microdiamonds being more CO2-rich than those that etched the macrodiamond fraction.
Stirling, R.A., Kelley, S.E., Ross, M., Elliott, B., Normandeau, P.X.
Surface and subsurface till characteristics in a drumlin field south of Lac de Gras, NT; implications for drift prospecting. ( Dominion's Ekati and North Arrow)
2018 Yellowknife Geoscience Forum , p. 80. abstract
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Ekati
Abstract: Successful diamond exploration is becoming increasingly challenging as the best expressed targets have been found. Areas of variable drift thickness and heterogeneous surficial deposits present several challenges to exploration. One particular aspect that is poorly understood is the effect of well-developed drumlin fields on the surface expression of dispersal trains. Our study focuses on drumlin fields and their potential effects in the expression of a dispersal pattern. Because drumlins are often stratified we hypothesize that multiple till layers of contrasting provenance, representing multiple ice-flow directions, can occur at the surface across drumlin fields due to erosional processes. This has the potential to affect analysis and interpretation of surficial till dispersion data.
To test this hypothesis, we examined data from a large RC drilling dataset donated by Dominion Diamond Ekati Corp. and North Arrow Minerals Inc. and complemented it with field-based surficial geology observations and analysis of additional surficial till samples across targeted drumlins. The surficial samples were collected at the top and on the sides of drumlins to test whether any glacial stratigraphy is expressed, especially in areas where post-glacial erosion may have exposed internal drumlin stratigraphy. Based on the RC data and available maps drift thickness within the drumlin field ranges from 1 meter in the swales between drumlins to about 20 meters on the top of the highest amplitude drumlins. Locally measured ice-flow indicators (n=11) show three distinct ice-flow directions from older to youngest: 260, 290, 305 degrees. Preliminary analysis of textural and compositional data shows variations within the till at depth as well as across the drumlin field. Ongoing work focuses on determining the relationship (or lack thereof) between till characteristics, drumlins, and ice flow history (till provenance), as well as on three-dimensional dispersal patterns of kimberlite indicator minerals and related geochemical pathfinders. This work will highlight landform feature considerations by using multiple parameters to analyze sample data in areas with complex glacial geology and high diamond potential.
Ugalde, H., Milkereit, B., Lenauer, I., Morris, W.A., Mirza, A.M., Elliott, B.
Airborne Mag/EM data integration of Slave province kimberlites, NWT.
2018 Yellowknife Geoscience Forum , p. 84. abstract
Canada, Northwest Territories
geophysics - Mag, EM
Abstract: As part of the Slave Province Geophysical, Surficial Materials and Permafrost Study, the Northwest Territories Geological Survey (NTGS) commissioned high resolution geophysical surveys in the Slave Geological Province (SGP). This work focuses on the analysis of six horizontal gradient magnetic and frequency domain EM (FDEM) surveys that were flown from February to March 2017 (Munn Lake, Margaret Lake, Zyena Lake, Lac de Gras West, Big Blue and Mackay Lake). All surveys were acquired at 75 m line spacing with nominal terrain clearance of 60 m to maintain bird height of 25 m. They total 4,580 line-km. We use the FDEM data to locate areas of potential remanent magnetization, and thus additional areas that could be related to kimberlite bodies. The area is part of the central Slave Craton, which is dominated by Archean granitoid rocks and Archean metasedimentary rocks. Heaman et al. (2013) identifies several distinct domains based on kimberlite ages in the area. Central Slave is characterized by Tertiary/Cretaceous age kimberlites, whereas the southern part exhibits kimberlites of Cambrian age. This have important implications for the orientation of the remanent magnetization vector. The methodology involves the use of a homogeneous half-space model to invert the data for dielectric permittivity, relative magnetic permeability, apparent resistivity and magnetic susceptibility. Using this model, we calculated Conductivity-Depth-Images (CDIs) for all the EM data. The susceptibility distribution from the EM data (MagEM) is then plotted against an apparent susceptibility derived from the total field data for the main survey via standard FFT calculation (MagTMI). Major differences between both distributions are usually associated to remanence. Once we identify areas of potential remanent magnetization, we use Helbig analysis to estimate the direction of magnetization. The validity of this model is verified by comparison of the computed remanence direction with the appropriate Apparent Polar Wander Path (APWP). We find a good correlation of APWP directions with the estimated remanence, however, a viscous remanence component subparallel to the present's day Earth field is sometimes required. Finally, we show the integration of these results with a structural interpretation of the aeromagnetic data and potential alteration zones derived from Aster imagery for all 6 blocks
Till geochemistry and lithogeochemical exploration for a concealed kimberlite.
2018 Yellowknife Geoscience Forum , p. 88-89. abstract
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Kelvin
Abstract: Research at the Kelvin kimberlite, NWT is defining surface exploration practices and developing new exploration tools based on host rock lithogeochemical alteration, that will result in reduced costs and improved discovery success. In regions where recent glaciation has buried kimberlites under glacial sediments, surface geochemical detection methods are best interpreted when coupled with a comprehension of the landscape formation processes. The glacial, post-glacial, and cryoturbation processes that have affected the landscape have, in turn, affected the dispersal of geochemical signatures in the till that can be detected and exploited by detailed surface mapping, sampling, and geochemical analysis. Additionally, the application of geochemical and hyperspectral data to country rock alteration core can aid in the detection of kimberlites during near-miss drilling campaigns. The Kelvin kimberlite is located eight kilometers from the Gahcho Kué diamond mine in the Northwest Territories. The inclined pipe sub-crops beneath a lake and dips into gneiss country rock towards the northwest with a surface projection of more than 600 m long. Relative uniformity of surficial material (<6 m thick till veneer) allows for extensive b-horizon soil sampling above the kimberlite, up-ice, and up to 1 km in the down-ice direction. Samples were sieved to -180 microns and analyzed by four acid digest ICP-MS and aqua-regia digest ICP-MS. Results indicate the soils to be very immature and identify the presence of a subtle Ni-Cr-Mg-Nb train originating from the lake side extending for >1km from source following the most recent ice direction to the west. The material for the train was abraded by the ice from the kimberlite, now sub-cropping beneath a lake, and would have provided additional support to drill what was initially targeted from geophysics. Additional research is being carried out to detect alteration signatures in the country rock induced by the emplacement of the kimberlite. Lithogeochemical data from four drill holes aims to identify and quantify the metasomatic enrichment and depletion of elements sourced from the kimberlite while accounting for country-rock lithology variation. Hyperspectral imaging of the same drill core will aim to detect and quantify secondary mineralogy and subtle changes in mineral composition that otherwise cannot be detected visually. This data will be used to generate mineralogical and chemical vectors beneficial in near-miss situations when drilling kimberlites and defining diatreme geometries.
Abstract: Carbonate-rich intrusions in contact with felsic rocks theoretically should show the effects of interaction between the two rock types, due to their contrasting compositions. In reality, though, such interaction is rarely reported at kimberlite contacts. We present the first documented case of lithological and mineralogical zonation at the margin of a kimberlite, the Snap Lake dyke, in contact with the wall-rock granitoid. Our detailed petrographic, mineralogical and geochemical study shows that the fresh hypabyssal kimberlite consists of olivine macrocrysts and microcrysts, and phlogopite macrocrysts set in a groundmass of serpentinized monticellite, phlogopite, spinel, perovskite and apatite, with interstitial lizardite and calcite. This typical Group I kimberlite mineralogy does not match the bulk-rock composition, which resembles a Group II micaceous kimberlite. The mismatch between the chemical and mineralogical properties is ascribed to contamination by granitoid xenoliths and metasomatic reactions with the felsic country rocks, the Snap Lake kimberlite has extremely low bulk-Ca compared to other documented Group I kimberlites. Reaction with deuteric H2O and CO2 has led to Ca removal, serpentinization of olivine, replacement of calcite by dolomite, alteration of perovskite and decomposition of apatite. Adjacent to the contact with the host granitoid and in haloes around granitoid clasts, poikilitic phlogopite and lizardite are replaced by subsolidus phlogopite and a multiphase phyllosilicate composed of phlogopite+?lizardite+?chlorite+?talc. A modified isocon analysis accounts for felsic xenolith assimilation and isolates metasomatic changes. Enrichment of altered kimberlites in Si owes solely to xenolith incorporation. The metasomatic ingress of granitoid-derived Al for a limited distance inside the dyke was counteracted by a flux of Mg and Fe to the granitoid. Metasomatic changes in K and Ca tend to be positive in all lithologies of kimberlite and in the granitoids implying distal transport. The combination of xenolith digestion with metasomatic element transport is expected in hybrid zones where kimberlite magmas interact with felsic wall-rocks.
Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, Vol. 174, 8 22p.
Africa, South Africa, Russia, Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Bultfontein, Roberts Victor, Udachnaya-East, Obnazhennaya, Vtorogodnitsa, Koala, Leslie
Abstract: Djerfisherite (K6(Fe,Ni,Cu)25S26Cl) occurs as an accessory phase in the groundmass of many kimberlites, kimberlite-hosted mantle xenoliths, and as a daughter inclusion phase in diamonds and kimberlitic minerals. Djerfisherite typically occurs as replacement of pre-existing Fe-Ni-Cu sulphides (i.e. pyrrhotite, pentlandite and chalcopyrite), but can also occur as individual grains, or as poikilitic phase in the groundmass of kimberlites. In this study, we present new constraints on the origin and genesis of djerfisherite in kimberlites and their entrained xenoliths. Djerfisherite has extremely heterogeneous compositions in terms of Fe, Ni and Cu ratios. However, there appears to be no distinct compositional range of djerfisherite indicative of a particular setting (i.e. kimberlites, xenoliths or diamonds), rather this compositional diversity reflects the composition of the host kimberlite melt and/or interacting metasomatic medium. In addition, djerfisherite may contain K and Cl contents less than the ideal formula unit. Raman spectroscopy and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) revealed that these K-Cl poor sulphides still maintain the same djerfisherite crystal structure. Two potential mechanisms for djerfisherite formation are considered: (1) replacement of pre-existing Fe-Ni-Cu sulphides by djerfisherite, which is attributed to precursor sulphides reacting with metasomatic K-Cl bearing melts/fluids in the mantle or the transporting kimberlite melt; (2) direct crystallisation of djerfisherite from the kimberlite melt in groundmass or due to kimberlite melt infiltration into xenoliths. The occurrence of djerfisherite in kimberlites and its mantle cargo from localities worldwide provides strong evidence that the metasomatising/infiltrating kimberlite melt/fluid was enriched in K and Cl. We suggest that kimberlites originated from melts that were more enriched in alkalis and halogens relative to their whole-rock compositions.
University of Alberta, Msc thesis https://doi.org/ 10.7939/R3C53FH3P available
Canada, Northwest Territories
mineral chemistry
Abstract: The Central Mackenzie Valley (CMV) area of Northwest Territories is underlain by Precambrian basement belonging to the North American Craton. The potential of this area to host kimberlitic diamond deposits is relatively high judging from the seismologically-defined lithospheric thickness, the age of basement rocks (2.2-1.7 Ga) and presence of kimberlite indicator minerals (KIMs) in Quaternary sediments. This study presents new major, minor and trace element chemistry data for kimberlite indicator mineral (KIM) grains collected from two regions within the Central Mackenzie Valley, Northwest Territories. The data, along with new kimberlite-related rutile U-Pb ages and ilmenite Hf isotopic compositions are used to constrain the composition and thickness of the lithospheric mantle sampled by the source kimberlite(s) and age of these kimberlites for these two regions. In the processed samples, peridotitic garnets dominate (> 25 % at each location) while eclogitic garnet is almost absent in both regions (< 1 % each). KIM chemistry for the Horn Plateau indicates significant diamond potential, with a strong similarity to KIM systematics from the Central and Western Slave Craton. The most significant issue to resolve in assessing the local diamond potential is the degree to which KIM chemistry reflects local and/or distal kimberlite bodies. Radiogenic isotope analysis of detrital kimberlite-related CMV oxide grains requires at least two broad age groups for eroded source kimberlites. Statistical analysis of the data suggests that it is probable that some of these KIMs were derived from primary and/or secondary sources within the CMV area, while others may have been transported to the area from the east-northeast by Pleistocene glacial and/or glaciofluvial systems. At this stage, KIM chemistry does not allow the exact location of the kimberlitic source(s) to be constrained.
Abstract: Diamonds originate deep in the Earth's mantle since billions of years ago. Through their long history diamonds accumulate information about the Earth's evolution, and preserve it owing to their extreme chemical and mechanical stability. The surface of natural diamonds shows a variety of growth and dissolution features, which reflect the diversity of conditions in the mantle and in kimberlite magma, providing an important clue for understanding the deep regions of subcratonic mantle. However, such studies are hampered by an absence of a systematic approach for studying diamond surface features and morphology. This review integrates studies of natural diamonds with the results of diamond dissolution experiments to explore the origin of the most typical resorption features of diamonds and the information they provide. It uses detailed studies of over ~ 3500 diamonds from eight kimberlite bodies in the Northwest Territories in Canada and Orapa kimberlite cluster in Botswana, and the data from diamond dissolution experiments covering a pressure range of between 0.1?MPa - 7.5?GPa, temperature range of between 900?°C - 1750?°C, and over 12 log units of oxygen fugacity values. Examining the effects of these parameters on diamond resorption morphology shows that the shape and size of the etch pits depends on the temperature and H2O:CO2 ratio in the fluid, whereas pressure affects the efficiency of diamond crystal shape transformation from octahedral into rounded resorbed forms. The effect of pressure on the physical properties of the reacting fluid / melt controls the character of diamond etching. A comparison between the experimentally-induced and naturally occurring diamond resorption demonstrates a clear difference between the features developed in kimberlite magma and features inherited from the mantle source. Kimberlite-induced resorption on diamonds shows a strong correlation with the geology and emplacement mode of the hosting kimberlite unit. Low-relief surfaces develop on diamonds from pyroclastic kimberlites in all kimberlite classes, whereas surface features on diamonds from coherent kimberlites differ between kimberlite localities and often show corrosive character. Diamond resorption morphology can offer a robust method to better understand emplacement processes in different kimberlite localities, which are a matter of significant debate. The proposed here classification scheme for diamond resorption features is based on the features observable under a stereomicroscope. It helps differentiating resorption produced in the mantle source from that in the kimberlite magma and assigning diamond resorption to a particular mode of kimberlite emplacement, or a mantle metasomatic event.
Abstract: Cratons are, by definition, the most tectonically stable and oldest parts of the continental lithosphere on Earth. The Archean Slave craton is located in the northwestern part of the Canadian Shield. The propensity of diamondiferous kimberlite pipes in the central Slave craton raises many questions regarding their structural environment and source. Here, we provide the most robust teleseismic P and S body wave tomography models over the Slave craton region based on 20,547 P-wave delay times, 6,140 direct S-wave delay times and 3,381 SKS delay times. The P-wave model reveals an alternating pattern of relative positive and negative anomalies over a fine broad scale region within the central Slave craton. Furthermore, the P-wave model revealed two fine structures located in the lithosphere beneath the Lac de Gras kimberlite cluster, with relatively slow anomalies (B - C) that extend from 75 km to 350 km depths with an apparent dip to the north. These relatively slow P- and S-wave anomalies are associated with metasomatised regions within the lithosphere. The S-wave model displays a slow S-wave anomaly lying from 300 km depth to the transition zone beneath the central Slave craton. This anomaly is located beneath the Lac de Gras kimberlite cluster. We suggest that this anomaly is not the cause of the actual kimberlites at the surface since last eruption occurred 75-45 Ma ago but may be related to a potential kimberlite magma ascent in the asthenosphere.
Abstract: Megacrysts are large (cm to >20?cm in size) mantle-derived crystals, which are commonly entrained by kimberlite magmas, comprising of olivine, orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, phlogopite, garnet, ilmenite and zircon as common phases. Numerous studies have shown megacrysts to contain polymineralic inclusions, which have been interpreted to represent entrapped kimberlite melt. To constrain the origin of these inclusions in megacrysts and their relationship to kimberlite magmatism, we present a detailed petrographic and geochemical study of clinopyroxene and olivine megacrysts and their hosted inclusions from the Diavik, Jericho, Leslie (Slave Craton, Canada) and Udachnaya-East (Siberian Craton, Russia) kimberlites. The studied megacrysts are between 1 and 3?cm in size and representative of both the Cr-rich and Cr-poor suites. Megacrysts contain two types of inclusions: i. Large (<0.5-5?mm in size) round-to-irregular shaped polymineralic inclusions, which are composed of minerals similar to the host kimberlite groundmass, and consist of olivine, calcite, spinel, perovskite, phlogopite and apatite (± serpentine, alkali-carbonates, alkali-chlorides, barite). ii. Swarms/trails of ‘micro melt inclusions’ (MMI; <1-5??m in size), which surround polymineralic inclusions, veins and fractures, thereby forming a ‘spongy’ texture. MMIs generally contain multiphase assemblages similar to polymineralic inclusions as well as various additional phases, such as alkali-carbonates or alkali-chlorides, which are typically absent in polymineralic inclusions and the surrounding kimberlite groundmass. Textural and geochemical evidence suggests that polymineralic inclusions in megacrysts crystallised from kimberlite melt, which infiltrated along fracture/vein networks. The polymineralic inclusion assemblages resulted from disequilibria reactions between the host megacryst and infiltrating kimberlite melt, which was likely enhanced by rapidly changing conditions during magmatic ascent. The connectivity of polymineralic inclusions to the kimberlite groundmass via network veins/fractures suggests that they are susceptible to infiltrating post-emplacement fluids. Therefore, the vast majority of polymineralic inclusions are unlikely to represent ‘pristine’ entrapped kimberlite melt. In contrast, MMIs are isolated within megacrysts (i.e. not connected to fractures/veins and therefore shielded from post-magmatic fluids) and probably represent entrapped remnants of the variably differentiated kimberlite melt, which was more enriched in alkalis-Cl-S-CO2 than serpentinised polymineralic inclusions and the host rocks exposed at Earth's surface as kimberlites.
Fulop, A., Kopylova, M., Kurszlaukis, S., Hilchie, L., Ellemers, P.
A reply to the comment by Germon et al. on the Petrography of the Snap Lake kimberlite dyke ( Northwest Territories, Canada) and its interaction with country rock granitoids.
Geochemical Perspective Letters, Vol. 10, pp. 8-13. doi:10.7185/ geochemlet.1907
Canada, Northwest Territories
magmatism
Abstract: Ancient rock samples are limited, hindering the investigation of the processes operative on the Earth early in its history. Here we present a detailed study of well-exposed crustal remnants in the central Slave craton that formed over a 1 billion year magmatic history. The tonalitic-granodioritic gneisses analysed here are broadly comparable to common suites of rocks found in Archean cratons globally. Zircon Hf isotope data allow us to identify a major change in the way continental crust was formed in this area, with a shift to distinctly positive ?Hf starting at ~3.55 Ga. The crust production processes and spatial distribution of isotopic compositions imply variable interaction with older crust, similar to the relationships seen in modern tectonic settings; specifically, long-lived plate margins. A majority of the Slave craton might have been formed by a similar mechanism.
Abstract: Drift prospecting has been utilized throughout the Slave Province in the Northwest Territories for decades, where glaciation and erosion within the past 10 000 years has produced the dispersion of minerals from their original host to till in their surrounding areas. This study is part of the greater Slave Province geophysical, surficial materials and permafrost study: a Northwest Territories Geological Survey (NTGS) led government-academic-industry research program. The purpose of this particular research is to assess kimberlite indicator minerals (KIMs) for any potential signature that may coincide with glacial dispersal trains through quantitative mineralogical and geochemical analysis. The NTGS has recently published data on Southern Slave Province surficial materials, which is useful as a comparative tool in the analysis of potential dispersal trains. Samples were collected from surficial sediment at various targets throughout the 75N and M NTS zones. Sample locations were chosen based on their down-ice position with respect to known kimberlites and gravity anomalies previously identified by the NTGS. Samples were preferentially collected from active and recently inactive frost boils. Overall, twenty-one 10 kg samples were collected and examined for KIMs. Several samples contain KIMs in moderate to high concentrations. Positive identifications of Cr-pyrope, chromite, Mg-ilmenite, and Cr-diopside have been confirmed in preliminary analysis. Of the identified KIMs garnet is the most abundant at 78 %, followed by chromite at 13 %, ilmenite at 8.9 %, and Cr-diopside at 0.5 %. Quantitative analyses are reported on confirmed KIMs: Cr-pyrope, Mg-ilmenite, Cr-diopside, chromite, and olivine for each sample site. The results of the analyses will be used to make further insights into till and kimberlite geochemistry of the Southern Slave Province.
Abstract: Megacrysts are mineral grains of garnet, clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene, ilmenite, olivine, phlogopite and zircon larger than 10 mm frequently observed in kimberlite occurrences across the world, with reported sizes commonly exceeding 10 cm. Despite their common occurrence and decades of research into their origin, megacryst petrogenesis is still a debated topic amongst petrologists. A strictly phenocrystal origin is doubted, with recent research suggesting a multi-stage model involving isobaric formation over a wide temperature range, followed by metasomatism of a protokimberlite fluid that replaces mantle minerals. Our project aims to contribute to ongoing research by modeling the metasomatism of the ambient peridotitic mantle affected by the fluid using major and trace element data obtained from megacrysts from the Jurassic Muskox kimberlite pipe of the Slave province of Canada. We report major element compositions of 24 megacryst samples of garnet, olivine, clinopyroxene and ilmenite and employ DEW (Deep Earth Water) modelling to establish the composition of the potential metasomatizing agent and mineral trends that result from the mantle metasomatism. This project has important implications for not only constraining the composition of the source fluids, but also understanding the reactions in the cratonic mantle leading to the kimberlite melt formation.
Abstract: Limited field studies and sparse chronological constraints in the southwestern Great Slave Lake area creates uncertainties about the Laurentide Ice Sheet (LIS) flow history and deglacial chronology. Improved understanding of the western LIS ice-margin morphology and retreat history is required to refine larger ice-sheet interpretations and timing for northwest drainage of glacial Lake McConnell. Using new field observations and geochronology we establish ice-flow history and better constrain regional deglaciation. Paleo-ice flow indicators (n = 66) show an oldest southwestern flow (230°), an intermediate northwesterly flow (305°), and a youngest westerly flow (250°). Till samples bulk sediment and matrix properties (n = 160) allowed identification of two till units. A lower grey till sourced mainly from local Paleozoic sediments produced clast fabrics indicating a southwesterly flow direction, overlain by a brown till that contained an increased Canadian Shield content with lodged elongate boulders a-axes and boulder-top striation orientations indicating a west to northwest ice-flow direction. Ice-flow results show a clockwise shift in direction interpreted as evidence for ice-divide migration followed by topographically controlled deglacial westward flow influenced by the Mackenzie River valley. Minimum deglacial timing estimates were constrained through optical dating of fine-sand deposits in a well-developed strandline (n = 2) and seven aeolian dunes; ages range from 9.9 ± 0.6 to 10.8 ± 0.7 ka BP. These ages are from dunes located below glacial Lake McConnell maximum water level and may thus provide new local lake level age constraints. Ice retreat is informed by a newly-mapped segment of the Snake River moraine, which is an understudied feature in the region. New ice-flow history and ice-margin retreat interpretations will be integrated into the larger body of work on the western LIS providing more confident conclusions on ice-sheet evolution and meltwater drainage pathways, specifically in the southwestern Great Slave Lake area.
Abstract: In October 2018, a diamond weighing a remarkable 552.7 ct was recovered from the Diavik mine in Canada. This is by far the largest known gem diamond found to date in North America. It is nearly three times larger than the 187.63 ct Diavik Foxfire which was unearthed from the same mine in August 2015, and about twice the size of a 271 ct white diamond mined from the Victor mine in Canada. GIA’s New York laboratory had the opportunity to examine this notable diamond in late January 2019, before it went on public display at the Phillips Auctions in New York...(no abstract, full article)
Abstract: Fieldwork conducted since 2010 by the Geological Survey of Canada under the GEM programs has revealed a more complex glacial history of the southern Great Slave Lake region of the Northwest Territories than was previously reported. New reconstructions of the Laurentide Ice Sheet paleo-ice flow history have been established from field observations of erosional and/or depositional ice-flow indicators (e.g. striae, bedrock grooves, till clast fabrics, and streamlined landforms), new geochronological constraints, and interpretations of glacial stratigraphy. Three distinct ice-flow phases are consistently observed in areas proximal to the western margin of the Canadian Shield between the Slave River near Fort Smith and Hay River further west. These phases are: 1) an oldest southwest flow; 2) a long-term sustained ice flow to the northwest; and, 3) a youngest west-southwest flow during Late Wisconsin deglaciation, which includes extensions of the Great Slave Lake and Hay River ice streams further east than previous mapped. At Hay River approaching the eastern limit of soft Cretaceous bedrock of the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin, the ice flow pattern no longer shows the aforementioned consistent chronology. From Hay River to the Liard River, near the zone where the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheet coalesced, a thinning ice profile, topographic highlands such as the Cameron Hills and Horn Plateau, and the deep basin that Great Slave Lake currently occupies, played a significant role on the dynamics of the Laurentide Ice Sheet during early ice advance, retreat during Marine Isotope Stage 3, Late Wisconsin advance and deglaciation. Other factors, such as increased sediment supply and clay content from Cretaceous shale bedrock were also significant in influencing ice-sheet behaviour. The role of elevated porewater pressures over subglacial clay-rich sediments controlled the extent and dynamics of several discordant ice streams in upland and lowland regions within the study area.
Abstract: Complex ice flow history, variable bedrock topography, landform types, and drift thickness may lead to complex glacial sediment dispersal patterns that are difficult to interpret, with implications for subglacial sediment provenance and related ice sheet research, as well as for mineral (drift) exploration. This study investigates the controls of bedrock topography, drift thickness, and landforms on 3D dispersal patterns in two study areas located southeast of Lac de Gras, Northwest Territories. The two areas are situated only about 25 km apart and have a similar ice flow history (clockwise shift from SW to NW). However, study area #1 hosts kimberlites within low topographic relief, while area #2 hosts kimberlites on a small granitic hill. The distribution and type of sediment-landform assemblages, as well as drift thickness, also differ between the two areas. Sediment characteristics, matrix geochemistry, and kimberlite indicator minerals (KIM) from surficial samples (n = 51) were analyzed and compared with a sample subset (n = 2000, from 250 boreholes) from a large RC drilling dataset donated by industry. Digital elevation models and a surficial geology map were also used. Results show contrasting patterns between the two areas, despite a similar ice flow record. Area #1 has a well-developed, yet fragmented 3D dispersal train consistent with the clockwise ice flow shift record. Area #2's dispersal patterns are less clearly-defined and appear unrelated or only weakly related to the known local source within the granitic hill. We find relationships between: 1) the strength of dispersal patterns and the bedrock topography in the kimberlitic source area; and, 2) the dispersal style and 3D shape within sediment-landform landsystems. These relationships have implications for drift prospecting survey design, as well as the interpretation of dispersal train patterns.
Abstract: The fertility of the subcontinental lithospheric mantle as source for metal-rich magmas remains poorly understood. We report new major (EPMA), minor and trace element (LA-ICP-MS) results for olivine mantle xenocrysts sourced from the Jurassic age Jericho, Muskox and Voyageur kimberlites, western Nunavut in the Slave Craton, approximately 30 km north of the Lupin gold mine. Target elements include a suite of ore-forming elements that are unconventional for mantle petrology studies, but may represent important geochemical tracers for metal metasomatism. Using single-grain aluminum-in-olivine thermometry, formation temperatures for the olivine grains were calculated and projected on to a mantle geotherm to estimate PT conditions. The suite of xenocrysts corresponds to mantle sampling between 100-190 km depth. Their range in Mg# indicates that all 3 kimberlites sampled variably depleted mantle peridotite. The patterns of trace element enrichments found are consistent with those documented previously for mantle olivine xenocryst samples from the lithosphere below the Superior Craton in Kirkland Lake, Ontario. In both studies, some ore-forming elements were found to partition into mantle silicates more at the higher temperatures and pressure prevalent at the base of the lithospheric mantle, notably copper, with concentrations varying from ~ 1 ppm in shallow samples up to 11 ppm at the maximum depth sampled. Because the concentration of metals in melt-depleted lithospheric peridotite is expected to be low (< 20 ppm Cu), mantle silicates likely become a significant host for some ore elements at depth. Highly incompatible high field strength elements yield decreasing concentrations with depth, possibly the result of mantle metasomatic processes. Fluid metasomatized mantle peridotite domains are also inferred from olivine xenocrysts that yield unexpected trace element concentrations (ppb to ppm) for other highly incompatible ore-elements (e.g. As, Mo). We expect that some of these fluid-mobile and highly incompatible ore-elements represent trapped fluid and/or melt inclusions.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, in press available, 42p.
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit -Diavik A154 N & S
Abstract: Kimberlite-borne granulite xenoliths provide rare insights into the age, chemical composition and tectonothermal evolution of the otherwise largely inaccessible deep cratonic crust. The formation and transformation of the lower continental crust (LCC) beneath the central Slave craton (Canada) is here illuminated using whole-rock trace-element and Sr-Nd isotope compositions of nine metabasaltic (MBG), one gabbroic (MGG) and two metasedimentary/hybrid (MSG) granulite xenoliths. On the one hand, published sulphide Re-Os and a few zircon U-Pb data indicate that at least a portion of the LCC beneath the central Slave craton has a Palaeoarchaean origin (?3.3?Ga), which apparently coincides with a period of juvenile crust and deep lithospheric mantle formation during plume impingement beneath the pre-existing cratonic nucleus. On the other hand, enrichment in Li, Sr, LREE, Pb and Th, but relative depletion in Ti, Hf and HREE, suggest formation of (picro)basaltic protoliths by partial melting of a subduction-modified garnet-bearing source, Crystallisation in the crust after fractionation of plagioclase is inidicated by their Sr and Eu negative anomalies, which are complementary to the positive anomalies in the MGG. Samarium-Nd isotopes in MBG and MGG show large scatter, but fall on Neo- or Mesoarchaean age arrays. These elemental systematics are suggested to fingerprint deserpentinisation fluids plus small amounts of sedimentary melt as the main contaminants of the mantle source, supporting the operation of at least regional and transient subduction at 3.3?Ga. Evidence for quasi-coeval plume impingement and subduction beneath the central Slave craton in the Mesoarchaean is reconcilable in a dynamic regime where vertical tectonics, though waning, was still active and plate interactions became increasingly important. Unradiogenic 87Sr/86Sr (down to 0.7017) is consistent with significant loss of Rb and probably other heat-producing elements (K, Th, U) plus H2O during Neoarchaean metamorphism, which helped to enhance LCC viscosity and stabilise the cratonic lithosphere.
Geophysical Prospecting, Vol. 67, 6, pp. 1626-1636.
Global, Canada, Northwest Territories
geophysics - graviometry
Abstract: For airborne gravity gradiometry in rugged terrain, helicopters offer a significant advantage over fixed?wing aircraft: their ability to maintain much lower ground clearances. Crucially, this provides both better signal?to?noise and better spatial resolution than is possible with a fixed?wing survey in the same terrain. Comparing surveys over gentle terrain at Margaret Lake, Canada, and over rugged terrain at Mount Aso, Japan, demonstrates that there is some loss of spatial resolution in the more rugged terrain. The slightly higher altitudes forced by rugged terrain make the requirements for terrain correction easier than for gentle terrain. Transforming the curvature gradients measured by the Falcon gravity gradiometer into gravity and the complete set of tensor components is done by a Fourier method over gentle terrain and an equivalent source method for rugged terrain. The Fourier method is perfectly stable and uses iterative padding to improve the accuracy of the longer wavelengths. The equivalent source method relies on a smooth model inversion, and the source distribution must be designed to suit the survey design.
Abstract: Cratons are the ancient landmasses that remain stable for billions of years on Earth but also have experienced episodic events of modification and rejuvenation throughout their history [1]. These alteration processes have modified the cratonic lithospheric mantle roots to different extents, e.g., ubiquitous cryptic/modal metasomatism, partial to entire loss of the mantle roots, to rifting apart of the craton. It remains unclear to what extent a cratonic mantle root can withstand modification and retain its integrity. We attempt to discuss this issue from the perspective of the Slave craton that has experienced the multiple impacts of major circum-cratonic Paleoproterozoic (1.93-1.84 Ga) orogenies and the intrusion of several 2.23-1.67 Proterozoic diabase dyke swarms. We use kimberlite-borne peridotite xenoliths to construct a N-S transect across the craton with an aim of probing the effects of these post-Archean events on the composition, age and depth of the lithospheric root. Chemically, all of these rocks are of typical cratonic refractory composition. P-T calculations and paleogeotherms show that they were derived from thick lithospheric mantle roots (>180 km), consistent with their diamondiferous nature. However, these peridotites exhibit variable N-S variation of modes in their Re-depletion Os model ages (TRD). Neoarchean TRD ages dominate in the Central and Southern Slave mantle. Progressing North there is a decreasing proportion of Archean TRD ages through Jericho to Artemisa in the Northern Slave craton. About 70% of the peridotites at Artemisia give TRD ages within error of the ~1.27 Ga Mackenzie LIP event, with the remaining (~ 30%) close to the Paleoproterozoic orogenic events. Combined with new data from regions to the N and NW of the Slave craton [2], the observed age spectrum in the far North of the craton indicates the likelihood of major new generation of lithospheric roots in both the Paleoproterozoic and Mesoproterozoic. Despite its complex history, the Northern Slave craton retains a ‘cratonic-like’ lithospheric root that allowed diamond mineralization.
Abstract: Kimberlites are mantle-derived, CO2 and H2O rich magmas that entrain abundant mantle material, including diamonds during rapid ascent to the surface. Most kimberlite magmas that reach the upper crust either erupt explosively or are emplaced as shallow hypabyssal intrusions. Catastrophic volatile exsolution, local geology and stress regimes, and interaction with external water are suggested as possible controls of magma explosivity. A full understanding of the processes promoting the explosive emplacement of kimberlite magmas has been hindered by common alteration and crustal contamination of pyroclastic kimberlites (PK). To address this issue, we have undertaken a detailed petrographic and mineral-chemical study of fresh pyroclastic and hypabyssal kimberlites (i.e. dykes either cross-cutting or isolated from volcanic pipes) from the Diavik Diamond Mine (Lac de Gras, Canada). Diavik kimberlites feature the same olivine compositions regardless of emplacement style. The cross-cutting kimberlite dykes (xHK) and pyroclastic kimberlites also feature the same chromite (i.e. liquidus spinel) compositions, and spinel evolution to indistinguishable magnesian ulvospinel-magnetite compositions. These results demonstrate that primitive melt compositions, and early magmatic evolutionary trends are the same for kimberlite melts that erupt explosively or those that are emplaced as shallow intrusions. The magmaclasts in PKs contain higher abundances of phlogopite, and lower contents of carbonate than the groundmass of xHKs suggesting higher H2O/CO2 ratios in the magmas that erupt explosively. This finding highlights divergence of the PK and xHK parental melt compositions after late spinel formation, which underpins explosive CO2 exsolution only in some magmas. While the causes of explosive volcanism remain uncertain, our study indicates that primitive melt composition has no significant influence on the emplacement style of kimberlites.
Yellowknife Forum NWTgeoscience.ca, abstract Volume p. 5.
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Curiousity
Abstract: The Curiosity Property, located in the Slave Province to the southwest of Contwoyto Lake, is situated ~25 kilometers north of the Ekati Diamond Mine’s mineral rights. This newly acquired property hosts a known diamondiferous kimberlite, called “LI-201”, which was originally discovered in a 1997 diamond drill campaign. Multiple attempts have been made over the past twenty years to delineate the extent of the body using an assortment of traditional exploration methods, yet LI-201 continues to remain poorly understood in terms of its overall dimensions and diamond-bearing potential. As part of a ten-day exploration program in August 2019, 275 geochemical till samples and 170 biogeological samples were collected. Geochemical sampling along 100-meter spaced fences that are down-ice and approximately perpendicular to the main ice-flow direction were collected in an attempt to further prioritize key geophysical targets in the project area surrounding LI-201. In the vicinity of LI-201, geochemical and biogeological samples were collected as a pilot study in an attempt to investigate the potential microbial community’s response to the presence of kimberlite and to determine if a discernable relationship exists between soil geochemistry and microbial populations. Despite the inconclusive understanding of the kimberlitic body, historical samples of LI-201 show apparent geochemical endowment and bode well for the prospectivity of the project area as a whole. Currently, efforts are being made to compile, verify, and interpret historical data, in addition to integrating newly collected data and interpretations. At the time of presenting, only preliminary geochemical results will be available; microbiological results are pending. In the future, findings from this study will be used to assess the effectiveness of the microbiological method as a means of detecting the known footprint of LI-201, which may also offer insights to the true footprint of the kimberlitic body.
Yellowknife Forum NWTgeoscience.ca, abstract Volume p. 7.
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Diavik
Abstract: Diavik has a robust communities portfolio to ensure that our impacted communities are informed and trusted partners in the success of our operation. The Diavik Traditional Knowledge Panel has been in place since 2012 as a resource for developing and providing recommendations on a variety of operational and closure details. The Panel is comprised of a male elder, a female elder and a youth from each of the five Participation Agreement communities and, to date, have made 194 recommendations. Diavik will present on the benefits and opportunities that are created when we utilize traditional knowledge in our operations.
Yellowknife Forum NWTgeoscience.ca, abstract volume p. 9-10.
Canada, Northwest Territories
eskers
Abstract: Eskers are long ridges of glaciofluvial sand and gravel frequently sampled during mineral exploration campaigns. Sampling of the 700 km long Exeter Lake esker by Chuck Fipke and Stu Blusson in the 1980s led directly to the discovery of the Lac De Gras kimberlite field and establishment of the diamond industry in the Northwest Territories. Despite their significant role in mineral exploration, the details surrounding eskers formation remain controversial (e.g. long-conduit vs. short-conduit models). In my coming research I will use a combination of geomorphological and provenance data to gain insight into the nature of the Exeter Lake esker and the origin of its sediment to help further define the parameters surrounding esker formation and their application in the mining industry. The geomorphology of the esker will be characterized in ArcMap using (1) the new Arctic DEM (2 m resolution), supplemented by (2) aerial imagery (3) GoPro footage of the entire esker collected during a low-level fly-over, (4) ground observations and short foot traverses made at regularly spaced intervals, and (5) locally collected drone footage. Morpho-sedimentary building block elements of the esker system will be identified and interpreted. Esker provenance will be studied using two sample suites. The first suite (112 samples) was collected at coarsely spaced intervals (15-20 km) along the entire length of the esker and contains pared till and esker-ridge samples from both the pebble and finer fractions. These samples will be used to ascertain whether dispersal trains—such as those emanating from the Dubawnt Supergroup—extend the entire length of the esker, considerably overshooting the till dispersal trains from which they were sourced, or whether they are more local in scale. Mud fractions (<63 microns) will be analyzed geochemically; this fraction has never been analyzed previously in similar studies, but could be more indicative of subglacial stream length. Zircon grains from the sand fraction will be analyzed using uranium-lead dating and correlated to diversely aged rock units along the esker system. Finally, the lithology of the pebbles will be analyzed and compared against previously mapped bedrock lithologies along the esker transect. The second suite (62 samples) was collected at closely spaced intervals (300-600 m) from various geomorphological expressions of the greater esker system near the edge of the Lac de Gras kimberlite indicator mineral (KIM) plume, as defined in the KIDD database. KIM concentrations from the samples will be compared with one another, and if the KIM train in the esker considerably overshoots that in the till, a long-conduit model may be more likely. Additionally, by comparing multiple expressions of the esker system any bias in the concentration of KIMs should be detected. Due to the novel approach and large dataset this study has the potential to provide considerable insight into the nature of esker systems and how they are deposited. With this knowledge, mining and exploration companies will be able reassess their esker datasets backed by a scientifically robust exploration model.
Yellowknife Forum NWTgeoscience.ca, abstract volume poster p.105-106.
Canada, Northwest Territories
drift prospecting
Abstract: In the glaciated terrain of the Northwest Territories, successful diamond exploration projects depend on the implementation of drift prospecting. Drift prospecting combines surficial sediment sampling with an understanding of glacial sediment transport history so that geochemical anomalies can be properly interpreted. However, deglacial meltwater processes that may rework, erode, transport, and deposit previously emplaced till are commonly overlooked or misidentified in sample collection and data interpretation. Exactly how deglacial meltwater processes affect the concentration of kimberlite indicator minerals in glacial sediments is poorly understood. The aim of this study is to determine if syn- and post-depositional meltwater processes affect kimberlite indicator mineral concentrations and distributions. The study area is approximately 225 km2, located in the Winter Lake area, in the southern Slave region. This area was chosen for its multiple subglacial meltwater corridors with numerous meltwater related landforms adjacent to relatively unmodified till. It is a prospective area for kimberlites based on the kimberlite indicator minerals identified during previous till sampling programs. The project incorporates terrain mapping, fieldwork and geochemical analysis. Progress so far includes a desktop study using existing air photos and surficial maps of the region and fieldwork. Stereo image visualization and mapping software (Summit EvolutionTM) combined with digital air photos of the area were utilized to complete a preliminary 1:10 000 scale digital terrain map. Fieldwork was completed in the summer of 2019: the nature and distribution of surficial materials were described, ice flow indicators identified and recorded, and surficial material samples collected. Sampling targeted sediments that experienced varying degrees of meltwater modification; materials collected cover the spectrum from unmodified till to washed till to sorted glaciofluvial sand and gravel. Analysis and interpretation are ongoing. Clast shape and lithology analysis has been completed. Grain size analysis will be completed for the presentation. Samples have been sent to commercial labs for geochemical analysis of the silt and clay fraction as well as heavy mineral separation followed by picking of kimberlite, base metal and gold indicator minerals. Potential kimberlite indicator minerals will be analyzed by electron microprobe to verify the mineralogy; their chemistry will be related to diamond potential. The results of these analysis will not be available in time for the presentation. Field descriptions and photogrammetry indicate that many meltwater corridors contain hummocks and elongate ridges composed of diamicton that is sandier and contains less silt than an unmodified till. The morphology and directionality of these identified landforms suggest they are not esker segments. Comparison of grain size, clast shape and lithology data between till and modified sediments will be related to landform genesis. The observations of surficial materials, landforms and ice flow indicators are being used to update the preliminary 1:10 000 scale terrain map of the area, as well as to interpret the local glacial history of the study area. The results of this project will have significant implications in the planning and execution of diamond exploration programs in the Northwest Territories as well as in effectively interpreting the results of drift prospecting campaigns.
Yellowknife Forum NWTgeoscience.ca, abstract volume p. 27.
Canada, Northwest Territories
economics
Abstract: In spite of a poor year for sales of rough diamonds globally, diamond mining continues to provide a foundation for the NWT economy. Gahcho Kué mine, which has been operating slightly ahead of plan, announced the discovery of the diamondiferous Wilson kimberlite within the current mine plan area. Consistently high forecasts for zinc demand have encouraged both the rejuvenation of Pine Point by Osisko Metals Inc. and NorZinc Ltd.’s ongoing efforts to bring Prairie Creek into production. Gold prices have been buoyed by safe-haven sentiment after concerns over economic growth, tariffs and trade wars with China. Advanced projects have benefited with an improving investment climate encouraging on-going exploration by Nighthawk Gold Corp. and TerraX Minerals Inc. However, many smaller projects were suspended as the companies were not able to raise sufficient funds on in the investment market. This was particularly true for the commodities targeting green energy and battery technologies. Most of the projects focusing on lithium, cobalt and vanadium started the year strongly but were dormant by the summer. A notable exception was the reactivation of Avalon’s Nechalacho project with an infusion of resources from Cheetah Resources of Australia. One of the indicators of exploration activity – claims staked vs. lapsed – continued an upward trend that began in 2017. In 2018, a total of 268 claims covering 184,985 hectares were added and 70 claims covering 58, 876 hectares were released. In the first three quarters of 2019, 120 claims covering 45,000 Ha were added but a nearly equivalent area 55,000 Ha in 85 claims and leases were cancelled. There are also 37 active Prospecting Permits this year. New staking included large areas in the Mackenzie Mountains, the additional ground at Pine Point, re-staking of claims in the Lac de Gras region and expansion of claims in the Yellowknife area. In 2019-2020, the Government of Northwest Territories invested nearly $1 million in grassroots mineral exploration through the Mining Incentive Program. This funding was dispersed to 19 exploration projects comprising twelve prospectors and seven companies. The Mineral Resources Act has passed the legislature marking the NWT’s first-ever stand-alone Act governing mining in the territory.
Yellowknife Forum NWTgeoscience.ca, abstract volume p. 57.
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Gahcho Kue
Abstract: Gahcho Kué Mine is owned as a joint venture between Mountain Province Diamonds Inc. and De Beers Canada Inc. Located about 280 km northeast of Yellowknife, it is Canada’s newest diamond mine and the world’s largest in the last 14 years. After two years of construction, commercial operations began in September 2016. As the mine enters into its fourth year of operation, De Beers is pleased to provide an update on the current mine operations, updated mine plan, safety, environment, and social performance.
Yellowknife Forum NWTgeoscience.ca, abstract volume p. 90.
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Diavik
Abstract: Diavik’s newest orebody, the A21 kimberlite pipe, was brought into production in December 2017 when surface mining began. This is the fourth kimberlite pipe to be mined at the Diavik Diamond Mine, located at Lac de Gras, 300 kilometres northeast of Yellowknife. To access this underwater orebody, Diavik constructed an engineered, 2.1 km long rock fill water retention dike during 2014 to 2017. This has now opened up the opportunity to study and evaluate possible mining methods below the open pit. Such additional kimberlite extraction would occur from 2023 to 2025.
Yellowknife Forum NWTgeoscience.ca, abstract volume p. 57.
Canada, Northwest Territories
Ice road
Abstract: The Tibbitt to Contwoyto Winter Road (TWCR) is North America’s largest ice road network that direct supports the operating diamond mines in the Northwest Territories. Operated by a Joint Venture between the Diavik Diamond Mines Inc, Dominion Diamond Mines ULC and De Beers Canada Inc., the ice road has an annual operating budget of $21 to 22 Million. The ice road is built through advanced flooding technologies, ice profiling radar and quality assurance engineering. Overseen by the Joint Venture, the ice road is constructed and maintained by 170 experienced personnel, 24 hours a day, operating out of three camps. Over the past five years, a yearly average of 8336 loads (281,363 tons) were transported using the Tibbitt to Contwoyto Winter Road. The TCWR Joint Venture is a unique example of collaboration in the North's mining industry and represents a critical lifeline to the success of the NWT's diamond mines.
Yellowknife Forum NWTgeoscience.ca, abstract volume p.69.
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Snap Lake
Abstract: The Snap Lake Mine is a former underground diamond mine operated by De Beers Canada Inc.( De Beers), located about 220 km northeast of Yellowknife in the Northwest Territories. The Snap Lake Mine operated from 2008 to 2015 and De Beers submitted the Final Closure and Reclamation Plan for the mine. The mine is currently in it fourth year of being managed in a state of Extended Care and Maintenance (ECM). Activities during ECM include monitoring of water quality and other environmental parameters, collecting and treating effluent and making sure that water leaving the site meets water license requirements. Physical infrastructure such as the airstrip, roadways, buildings, processed kimberlite containment facilities and associated surface water infrastructure such as pumps, sumps and channels need to be kept in a safe and operable condition. After a trail-run of reduced camp occupancy in 2017, the site was fully winterized and demobilized in September 2018. This update will review the first seasonal zero occupancy at Snap Lake, as well as the work completed in spring/summer of 2019.
Yellowknife Forum NWTgeoscience.ca, abstract volume p. 70.
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Snap Lake
Abstract: The Snap Lake Mine is a former underground diamond mine operated by De Beers Canada Inc. (De Beers), located about 220 km northeast of Yellowknife in the Northwest Territories. The Snap Lake mine operated from 2008 to 2015, and entered a Care and Maintenance mode in December 2015. The mine is currently entering its fourth year of being managed in this Extended Care and Maintenance phase. In order to ensure continual remote monitoring of certain key geotechnical, meteorological and air quality instrumentation and to enable visual observation of key infrastructure, work was done in 2018 to integrate new and existing monitoring instrumentation into the existing Campbell Scientific PakBus network. In this presentation De Beers will share a summary of this work, with the emphasis on the type of technology, detail of installation and integration of systems between the various pieces of instrumentation. First we will discuss installation of the 5 data collection stations that relay geotechnical instrumentation information. The data collection system at each of the 5 stations consists of a solar panel, battery, data logger, multiplexor and short-wave radio. To enable redundancy, a manual data collection via USB was added, in the event that remote communication with the stations is lost. Second, an overview of the installation of camera monitoring stations as well as the communications protocol used for the integration of the weather and ambient air quality data transmitted via satellite will be presented. While the focus will be on the technology and systems used for remote monitoring, and not the actual monitoring results per se, it is our intention to share this and some of the successes and challenges experienced during the first year of remote monitoring during zero occupancy conditions.
Yellowknife Forum NWTgeoscience.ca, abstract volume p. 42-43.
Canada, Northwest Territories
kimberlite
Abstract: Mineral exploration in northern latitudes is challenging in that undiscovered deposits are likely buried beneath significant glacial overburden. The development of innovative exploration strategies and robust techniques to see through cover is imperative to future discovery success. Microbial communities are sensitive to subtle environmental fluctuations, reflecting these changes on very short timescales. Shifts in microbial community profiles, induced by chemical differences related to geology, are detectable in the surficial environment, and can be used to vector toward discrete geological features. The modernization of genetic sequencing and big-data evaluation allows for efficient and cost-effective microbial characterization of soil profiles, with the potential to see through glacial cover. Results to date have demonstrated the viability of microbial fingerprinting to directly identify the surface projection of kimberlites in addition to entrained geochemical signatures in till. Soils above two kimberlites in the Northwest Territories, have undergone microbial community profiling. These community-genome derived datasets have been integrated with chemistry, mineralogy, surface geology, vegetation type and other environmental variables including Eh and pH. Analyses show significant microbial community shifts, correlated with the presence of kimberlites, with a distinct community response at the species level directly over known deposits. Diversity of soil bacteria is also depressed in the same regions of the microbial community response. The relationship between microbial profiles and buried kimberlites has led to the application of microbial fingerprinting as a method to accurately delineate potential ore deposits in covered terrain. The integration of microbial community information with soil chemistry and landscape development coupled with geology and geophysics significantly improves the drill / no-drill decision process and has proven to be far more accurate than traditional surficial exploration methods. There is high potential for application as a field-based technique as microbial databases for kimberlites in northern regions are refined, and as sequencing technology is progressively developed into portable platforms.
Yellowknife Forum NWTgeoscience.ca, abstract volume p. 72.
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Snap Lake
Abstract: The Snap Lake Mine (the Mine) is a former underground diamond mine operated by De Beers Canada (De Beers), located about 220 kilometres northeast of Yellowknife in the Northwest Territories. The Snap Lake Mine operated from 2008 to 2015, and entered a Care and Maintenance mode in December 2015. In February 2017, the Mine underground workings were decommissioned and allowed to flood, in December 2017, De Beers announced the intent to enter into final closure, and in March 2019, De Beers submitted the Final Closure and Reclamation Plan for the Mine. Water management has always been an important component at the Mine and was considered in development of the Final Closure Plan to achieve the overall goal of “returning the site and affected areas around the Mine to technically viable and, where practicable, self-sustaining ecosystems that are compatible with a healthy environment and with human activities”. Water management at the Mine has changed significantly since diamond mining operations ceased. During diamond mining operations, a large volume of water was pumped from the underground to the surface for management and release to Snap Lake and the downstream environment. This mine water was relatively high in total dissolved solids and total suspended solids and therefore had to be treated prior to discharge. Now that the underground is flooded, there is no longer a need to pump mine water to the surface and water management has been greatly simplified. Since 2017, small volumes of runoff water from the North Pile (a surface disposal facility that was used for processed kimberlite, waste rock, and non-hazardous solid waste during operations) is collected for management and release to the underground and to Snap Lake. Water quality and aquatic ecosystem monitoring has been conducted yearly since pre-mining. Results of these programs have informed adaptive management at the site and informed plans for closure. The focus of this presentation is on water management and monitoring, for the Mine to the receiving environment, covering the history of the Mine to present and into planning for closure.
Yellowknife Forum NWTgeoscience.ca, abstract volume p. 85.
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Gahcho Kue
Abstract: A vegetation and soils monitoring program was implemented at the Gahcho Kué Mine to test for mine-related changes to vegetation and soils from dust deposition. Besides measuring changes in vegetation and soils, one objective of the study is to inform the Wildlife Effects Monitoring Program with respect to the potential for dust as a mechanism for avoidance of habitats near the Mine by caribou and other wildlife. Soil properties, plant communities, and dust deposition have been monitored since 2013 with permanent vegetation plots and dust collectors using a gradient study design prior to and during construction and operation of the Mine. A single study area transect was established in a west-southwest direction extending 20 kilometres from the Mine footprint, which was based on the prevailing wind direction and terrain features (i.e., large lakes), and the distribution of the target plant community across the landscape. Dustfall deposition and associated metals concentrations, and soil moisture and temperature variables are monitored annually. Data on plant species richness and abundance and soil pH and salinity are collected every three years. Analysis of variance was performed to determine if fixed dustfall deposition rates varied among sampling areas, seasons, and years. A repeated measures analysis of variance was used to examine patterns of species abundance (percent cover) and species richness across sampling areas and years. Although dust deposition has shown increasing trends since the commencement of construction and operation, no effects on vegetation from dust were observed in the current analysis. Metals concentrations in dust were generally below detection limits or in trace amounts, consistent with baseline values, and soil pH and salinity were within baseline values. Minor observed changes in species richness are likely related to natural variation in site conditions among vegetation plots and associated sampling areas, annual variation in climate, surveyor variability, and foraging by caribou and other wildlife. Differences in annual dust deposition rates may be attributed to annual variations in temperature, wind, and rainfall. The results suggest that dust-related changes in vegetation community composition is likely not a factor influencing the avoidance of habitats near the Mine by caribou or other wildlife.
Yellowknife Forum NWTgeoscience.ca, abstract volume p. 89-90.
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - lac de Gras
Abstract: Till dispersal patterns may appear as a consistent train of indicators extending in the direction of the latest ice-flow phase from a source, or along a direction defined by an older ice-flow phase. However, other dispersal patterns, sometimes even in the same area, may have poorly-defined, discontinuous trains, or even lack dispersal trains all together. This research investigates dispersal patterns from two sites southeast of Lac de Gras that were affected by the same ice-flow history, but show important differences in bedrock topography, till thickness, and subglacial landform assemblages. The goal is to improve our understanding of bedrock and till thickness effects on dispersal trains. New local ice-flow indicators (n=16) constrain local ice-flow history. Digital elevation models and a surficial map are used to identify surficial landforms and to loosely constrain bedrock topography. We also use a subset of KIM results from a large industry-donated RC-drilling database (n=502 from 185 boreholes) which includes information on subsurface sediment characteristics and depth-to-bedrock data, which further constrain bedrock topography. In addition, we use texture, matrix geochemistry, KIMs, and clast lithology from a smaller set of 51 surface samples to compare dispersal patterns at surface and at depth. Part of the eastern study area is characterized by a well-defined drumlin field associated with the young NW ice-flow phase, variable till thickness (0-18m), and relatively flat bedrock topography (<20m elevation change). Kimberlites WO-17/WO-20 exhibit a short, but well-defined KIM dispersal train in the direction of the last dominant flow phase (NW); the dispersal area is also characterized by thin discontinuous till. A second KIM dispersal train is also recognized in the thicker till of the drumlin field SW of WO-17/20. Based on its location relative to WO-17/20, and till geochemistry and lithology counts, this pattern is interpreted to be a palimpsest train associated to the oldest SW ice flow. The western study area, located 20km from the eastern area, is characterized by a similar ice-flow history, but its bedrock topography varies more (~70m), with thin till, generally under 4m. A known kimberlite within the western area (Big Blue) is nestled within a bedrock topographic high ~20m above the surrounding terrain. Fragmented and more elusive till anomalies occur down-ice from this source. The lack of a well-developed dispersal train associated with the kimberlite is noteworthy, and may be due to the evolution of subglacial conditions around the bedrock hill. Our current model involves initial basal sliding and erosion of the top of the kimberlite and englacial entrainment. This phase was followed by reduced local abrasion and erosion rates within the kimberlite depression, possibly related to the development of low-pressure cavities over several local depressions: an idea supported by evidence of late-stage meltwater activity. This research highlights the important role of bedrock topography and related subglacial conditions both in the source area and dispersal area, as well as the potential for enhanced preservation of palimpsest trains in drumlinized till blankets.
Yellowknife Forum NWTgeoscience.ca, abstract volume p. 95-96.
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Ekati
Abstract: The Ekati Diamond Mine is a surface and underground diamond mine operated by Dominion Diamond Mines. It is located near Lac de Gras within the Northwest Territories, Canada approximately 300 km north of Yellowknife and roughly 200 km south of the Arctic Circle. The Long Lake Containment Facility (LLCF) is the primary containment area for processed kimberlite (PK) storage after the extraction of diamonds from kimberlite ore. The facility has been in operation since 1998 and is the main repository of PK from open pit and underground mines at the Ekati Mine. The overall reclamation goal for the LLCF is the design and construction of a long-term cover that will physically stabilize the PK, with a landscape that will be safe for human and wildlife use. The proposed final closure design for the LLCF includes the following components: 1) Combination of vegetation and rock cover system to physically stabilize the PK. Vegetation is planned to be the main stabilization component of the PK. Rock placement is intended to promote a localized environment for vegetation growth and provide larger-scale wind and water erosion protection. 2) Water drainage channels to convey surface water flow through the containment cells and into settling ponds. Since 2012, reclamation research has been ongoing at Cell B of the LLCF with the overall intent of addressing uncertainties with the proposed final LLCF cover design. Separate reclamation research programs focused on addressing the uncertainties of vegetation growth in PK are being carried out under this project. Dominion’s short-term research goal has been to establish and evaluate the vegetation growth directly within PK. Main components of the LLCF reclamation research includes evaluation of soil amendments, rock/vegetation combinations, annual crop cover, plant species trials, mine-generated organic matter application, seed collection/distribution, and natural vegetation colonization. The LLCF reclamation research aims to establish a best practice that could be adapted by other mining operations looking to reclaim PK containment sites. Annual vegetation monitoring and continued program expansion aid in reaching that goal. Recent program undertakings have included: 1)Surface water management research through trial channel construction and further bio-engineering of existing channels 2) Mycorrhizae inoculation to improve soil microbial communities 3) Implementation of rough and loose mounding as an erosion control measure 4) Evaluation of the feasibility of using organic matter generated from the Ekati composter facility 5) Harvesting of halophytic seed and live plant specimens from saline environments near Kugluktuk, Nunavut for planting in Cell B 6) Utilization of reclamation equipment for earthworks. The LLCF reclamation research has been a vessel for developing methods of utilizing PK as an effective growth medium. High sodium concentrations and low organic matter content present challenges, but also provide opportunities for innovative research to improve environmental conditions and lead to a final closure design. Dominion has included Traditional Knowledge, other scientific knowledge, as well as regulatory and community input as a key component of LLCF reclamation research planning and final cover design.
Yellowknife Forum NWTgeoscience.ca, abstract volume p. 97.
Canada, Northwest Territories
legal
Abstract: Established in 1999, the Diamond Policy Framework (DPF) was designed to facilitate the development of a diamond manufacturing industry in the Northwest Territories (NWT). In addition, agreements with NWT diamond producers were established which required them to offer 10 percent of their production, by value, to Approved NWT Diamond Manufacturers (ANDM) for manufacturing in the NWT. The NWT is the most expensive jurisdiction in which to operate a manufacturing facility and despite some early success, the policy was not successful in creating an operating environment for the secondary industry to flourish. In 2018, ITI commissioned a review of the DPF that sought recommendations on how to make this industry more attractive to investors. The report contained a detailed review of the global diamond market. It also presented a series of cost per carat analyses of NWT production costs versus costs in other diamond manufacturing regions. Policy recommendations included adopting an export provision for NWT rough diamonds (and making that export volume contingent on their investment in the NWT), permitting the development of a facility for high-skill planning and lasering services, and generally ensuring that the policy supported the acceptance of innovative business plans. In 2018, The Department of Industry, Tourism and Investment (ITI) amended the DPF. Accordingly, a new approach to the utilization of rough diamonds was developed to realize maximum economic benefits for the NWT and its residents. The amended DPF now has provisions that allow an ANDM to export a portion of their allocation based on their business proposal and an ANDM is no longer required to complete the entire manufacturing process in the NWT. To be eligible to export rough diamonds, ANDM applicants must provide a comprehensive business plan that outlines investment details. Business plans are reviewed and scored based on a comprehensive matrix that determines the export volume.
Yellowknife Forum NWTgeoscience.ca, abstract volume poster p. 123-124.
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Kelvin
Abstract: Research at the Kelvin kimberlite, NWT, is defining surface exploration practices and testing new host rock lithogeochemical exploration tools that will result in reduced costs and improved discovery success. In regions where recent glaciation has buried kimberlites under glacial sediments, surface geochemical detection methods are best interpreted when coupled with a comprehension of the landscape formation processes. The glacial, post-glacial, and cryoturbation processes that have affected the landscape have, in turn, affected the dispersal of geochemical signatures in the till that can be detected and exploited by detailed surface mapping, sampling, and geochemical analysis. The Kelvin kimberlite is an inclined pipe that subcrops from metaturbidite country rock beneath a lake. No indicator mineral train has been detected at Kelvin by traditional indicator mineral methods. Relative uniformity of surficial material (<6m thick till blanket) allows for extensive B horizon soil sampling above the kimberlite, up-ice, and up to 1 km down-ice. Four acid and aqua regia ICP-MS results of the -180 ?m fraction indicate the presence of subtle pathfinder element trains originating from the kimberlite subcrop location and extending for >1km down-ice. Dry sonic sieving and four acid digestion results provide interpretations of geochemical partitioning and the ideal size fraction for geochemical sampling. Trace elements demonstrate systematically elevated concentrations in the fine and very fine silt fractions; however, background is higher and anomalous to background contrast is not enhanced compared to bulk -180 ?m ratios. Elevated pathfinder concentrations in the fine to very fine sand fraction are attributed to fine kimberlite indicator minerals and their fragments, and display the best anomalous to background contrast ratio. Whole soil commercial Pb isotope analysis of select soils provide supplemental data to fingerprint the petrogenetic source of anomalous samples. Additional research is being carried out to detect alteration signatures in the country rock induced by the emplacement of the kimberlite. Lithogeochemical data from four drill holes aims to identify and quantify the metasomatic enrichment and depletion of elements sourced from the kimberlite, while hyperspectral imaging will aim to detect secondary mineralogy and subtle changes in mineral composition. This data will be used to generate mineralogical and geochemical vectors beneficial in near-miss situations when drilling kimberlites and defining diatreme geometries.
Journal of Geochemical Exploration, Vol. 199, pp. 105-127.
Canada, Northwest Territories
geomorphology
Abstract: Tracing indicator minerals and geochemical pathfinders in glacial sediments back to their up-ice source is a common mineral exploration approach in prospective, formerly glaciated regions. In this study, we utilize surface and subsurface data from the Lac de Gras area of the Northwest Territories to develop a three-dimensional understanding of till compositional anomalies emanating from two known kimberlite pipes, DO-18 and DO-27. Specifically, this study examines the three-dimensional shape of dispersal trains as defined by geochemical pathfinder elements and kimberlite indicator minerals shed from a pair of kimberlite pipes within a till cover of variable thickness. From our ninety-four reverse circulation boreholes (n?=?251 till samples), and other publicly-available geologic datasets, we have reconstructed bedrock topography, till thickness, and the subsurface geometry of two dispersal trains. Utilizing our three-dimensional dataset, we have documented the role of basal topography in creating dispersal patterns with contrasting geometries from two adjacent kimberlites, as well as in the preferential preservation of older till units. The combination of field observations of ice-flow indicators and till compositional data demonstrates that features produced by multiple ice flows are preserved in both the erosional and depositional records in this region. Three-dimensional dispersion patterns of kimberlite indicators reflect the effect of shifting ice-flow direction with respect to slope aspect of bedrock topography in governing compositional variability within glacial drift. Our findings suggest that surficial data do not capture the full extent of dispersion patterns even in areas of relatively thin and discontinuous till cover.
A summary of the Slave geological province exploration development initiative - revitalizing mineral exploration and facilitating sustainable development in a a key economic region.
Vancouver Kimberlite Cluster meeting, Jan. 23, 1/4p. Abstract
Diamonds & Related Materials, Vol. 101, 107642, 8p. Pdf
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Ekati
Abstract: High pressure high temperature (HPHT) treatment has long been applied in the gem trade for changing the body colour of diamonds. The identification of HPHT-treated diamonds is a field of on-going research in gemological laboratories, as different parameters of treatment will result in either the creation or the destruction of a variety of lattice defects in diamonds. Some features that exist in treated diamonds can also be found in natural diamonds, and consequently must not be employed for the separation of treated and natural diamonds. In this research, we investigated the properties of 11 natural yellow diamonds (directly obtained from the Ekati Diamond Mine to ensure that they are untreated) before and after HPHT treatment, conducted at a temperature of 2100 °C and a pressure of 6 GPa for 10 min. We report spectroscopic data and fluorescence characteristics, collected using PL mapping, FTIR mapping and fluorescence imaging showing the distribution of lattice defects and internal growth structures. PL mapping indicates SiV defects exist in one of the nitrogen-rich natural diamonds prior to treatment. Silicon-related defects can also be created by HPHT treatment, and they seem to show a relationship with pre-existing NV? centres. SIMS analysis was conducted to confirm the presence of silicon in these diamonds. The increase in the hydrogen-related infrared absorption peak at 3107 cm?1 (VN3H) is very strong in some diamonds that do not form B-centres during treatment. NVH was observed in our HPHT-treated natural diamonds, so it is possible that this strong increase in VN3H suppresses the aggregation of A- to B-centres as the newly formed A-centres were captured by NVH lattice defects to form VN3H. HPHT-altered and HPHT-induced platelet peaks are different from their natural counterparts in peak width and shape. Strong green fluorescence over a large area of a diamond, which is linked to relatively high concentration of H3 centres, was produced after HPHT treatment. We are confident that the unusual platelet peaks and strong emission of H3 centres are reliable indicators for HPHT-treated diamonds as they are not observed in untreated natural diamonds.
Abstract: Elucidating the composition of primary kimberlite melts is essential to understanding the nature of their source, petrogenesis, rheology, transport and ultimately the origin of diamonds. Kimberlite rocks are typically comprised of abundant olivine (~2560 vol%), which occurs as individual grains of variable size and morphology, and includes xenocrysts and zoned phenocrysts. Zoning patterns and inclusions in olivine can be used to decipher the petrogenetic history of kimberlites, starting from their generation in the mantle through to emplacement in the crust. This study examines well-preserved, euhedral, zoned olivine crystals from the Mark kimberlite (Lac de Gras, Canada). Olivine typically consists of xenocrystic cores, which are homogeneous in composition but vary widely between grains (Fo88.193.6). These cores are in turn surrounded by (in order of crystallisation) magmatic rims and Mg-rich rinds (Fo95.398.1). In addition, we document a new type of olivine zone (‘outmost rind’) that overgrows Mg-rich rinds. Crystal and melt/fluid inclusions are abundant in olivine and preserve a record of kimberlite melt evolution. For the first time in the studies of kimberlite olivine, we report primary melt inclusions hosted in Mg-rich olivine rinds. In addition, we observe that pseudosecondary melt/fluid inclusions are restricted to interior olivine zones (cores, rims) and are considered to have formed prior to rind formation. Pseudosecondary melt/fluid inclusions are inferred to have been entrapped at depth, as evidenced by measured densities in thermometric experiments of CO2 and decrepitation haloes, indicating a minimum entrapment pressure of ~200450 MPa (or ~615 km). Both primary and pseudosecondary melt inclusions in olivine have daughter minerals dominated by CaMg and K-Na-Ba-Sr-bearing carbonates, K-Na-chlorides along with subordinate silicates (e.g., phlogopite, monticellite), Fe-Mg-Al-Ti-spinel, perovskite, phosphates and sulphates/sulphides and periclase. In addition to phases reported in primary melt inclusions, pseudosecondary melt inclusions contain more diverse and exotic daughter mineral assemblages, where they contain phases such as tetraferriphlogopite Ba- or K-sulphates, kalsilite and Na-phosphates. The daughter mineral assemblages are consistent with a silica-poor, alkali dolomitic carbonatite melt. We demonstrate that the different types of inclusions in olivine can assist in constraining the timing of multi-stage olivine growth and the composition of the crystallising melt. The large variance in olivine zoning patterns, morphologies and Ni distribution (i.e. both coupling with and decoupling from Fo) indicates that olivine in the studied Mark kimberlite samples represent an accumulation of olivine, where olivine was derived from successive stages of the ascending magma and/or from multiple, but related pulses of magma. Primary and pseudosecondary melt/fluid inclusions in olivine indicate that a variably differentiated silica-poor, halogen-bearing, alkali-dolomitic melt crystallised and transported olivine in the Mark kimberlite.
Mineralogy and Petrology, in press available 13p. Pdf
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Chidliak, Ekati
Abstract: Yellow diamonds from the CH-7 (Chidliak) and the Misery (Ekati Mine) kimberlites in northern Canada are characterised for their nitrogen characteristics, visible light absorption, internal growth textures, and carbon isotope compositions. The diamonds are generally nitrogen-rich, with median N contents of 1230 (CH-7) and 1030 at.ppm (Misery). Normally a rare feature in natural diamonds, single substitutional nitrogen (C centres) and related features are detected in infrared absorption spectra of 64% of the studied diamonds from CH-7 and 87% from Misery and are considered as the major factor responsible for their yellow colouration. Episodically grown diamonds, characterised by colourless cores containing some nitrogen in the fully aggregated form (B centres) and yellow outer layers containing C centres, occur at both localities. Carbon isotope compositions and N contents also are significantly different in such core and rim zones, documenting growth during at least two temporally distinct events and involving different diamond forming fluids. Based on their nitrogen characteristics, both the yellow diamonds and yellow rims must have crystallized in close temporal proximity (<<1 Ma) to kimberlite activity at CH-7 and Misery.
Abstract: Kimberlites are mantle-derived magmas that either crystallise as hypabyssal intrusions, erupt explosively after rapid ascent to the surface, or less commonly form lava lakes and flows, thereby creating texturally distinct kimberlite units. Efforts to fully understand the processes responsible for the explosive eruption of kimberlite magmas have been hindered by the widespread alteration and crustal contamination of most volcaniclastic kimberlites. To address this issue, we have undertaken a detailed petrographic and mineral chemical study of fresh (i.e. minimally altered) pyroclastic and hypabyssal kimberlites (HK) from the ca. 55-56?Ma A154 North and South kimberlite pipes in the Diavik Mine (Lac de Gras, Canada). These localities host exceptionally fresh kimberlites and are therefore ideally suited to this study. Kimberlite emplacement at A154 North and South initiated with the intrusion of hypabyssal kimberlite (external dykes), and was followed by the explosive formation of kimberlite pipes and volcaniclastic kimberlite infill. Subsequent kimberlite magmas intruded the volcaniclastic kimberlite units forming multiple cross-cutting, internal dykes. The studied volcaniclastic units feature abundant rounded magmaclasts and massive textures, suggestive of primary deposits. These units are classified as pyroclastic kimberlites (PK). Pyroclastic and hypabyssal kimberlite units at Diavik exhibit subtle mineral compositional differences. Samples from both internal HK units and PK units feature identical compositions for liquidus olivine rims (Mg#?=?90.5?±?0.1 and 90.7?±?0.2, respectively), with a marginally lower Mg# of 90.2?±?0.2 in olivine rims from the external HK dykes. Similarly, early-formed chromite compositions are the same for internal HK and PK units (Cr#?=?79.1?±?3.4 and 78.3?±?5.7; Mg#?=?60.0?±?1.3 and 60.0?±?2.2), but, differ in the external HK units (Cr#?=?86.9?±?2.7; Mg#?=?52.8?±?1.9). The internal HK and PK units also exhibit lower carbonate contents than the internal HK units. These compositional differences indicate that the external dykes were probably derived from slightly different primitive melt compositions to those parental to the internal HK and PK units. Spinel evolutionary trends from chromite to magnesian ulv?spinel-magnetite (MUM) compositions (Fe3+#?=?47.2?±?5.8 and 49.7?±?9.3; Cr#?=?25.7?±?11.0 and 17.0?±?14.0 for MUM) are indistinguishable in internal HK and PK samples. These results demonstrate that the primitive melt compositions and early magmatic evolution processes are identical for the internal kimberlite units, regardless of whether the kimberlite melts erupted explosively or were emplaced as shallow intrusions. However, magmaclasts in the PK units contain higher abundances of phlogopite (<52 vol%) and lower quantities of carbonate (<4 vol%) than the groundmass of the hypabyssal kimberlite samples (<2 vol% and 25-65 vol%, respectively). This indicates that the explosively erupted magmas featured higher H2O/CO2 ratios. In contrast, abundant carbonates, including dolomite, in the internal HK samples indicate that CO2, and therefore low H2O/CO2 ratios, were retained during the emplacement of this magma, which likely prevented phlogopite crystallisation. Lower K and Rb whole-rock compositions for internal HK samples compared to PK samples, are attributed to the removal of these components in late-stage kimberlitic fluids, as indicated by hydrothermal alteration of the adjacent volcaniclastic kimberlite units. The above results clearly rule out variations in primitive melt composition and melt evolution trajectories as a primary control on the explosive behaviour of the kimberlite magmas at Diavik. Our study also emphasises how volatile loss resulting from different emplacement styles can have a profound effect on the whole-rock compositions and petrography of kimberlite units. Controls on kimberlite explosivity at Diavik are likely due to external factors, such as local stress regimes, the availability of groundwater (i.e. phreatomagmatism) and differing magma supply rates.
Abstract: Lower crustal heat production is poorly constrained due to the relative inaccessibility of lower crustal samples and their inherent complexity. To obtain the requisite information, the current project conducts spatially resolved geochemical analyses on minerals in 15 lower crustal xenoliths erupted via the Diavik A-154 kimberlite of the Northwest Territories, Canada. The aims are to: 1) conduct geothermometric measurements on lower crustal minerals, 2) construct a heatproducing element budget of the lower crust of the Slave craton, and 3) test the validity of these measurements in a parameter space relevant to geodynamic modeling and diamond exploration. The Diavik lower crustal xenolith suite comprises two main lithologies, mafic granulite (garnet-plagioclase-clinopyroxene ± orthopyroxene) and metasedimentary granulite (garnetplagioclase- orthopyroxene ± quartz ± K-feldspar ± kyanite), which are present in proportions of approximately 80:20, respectively. Application of mineral-pair, iron-magnesium exchange geothermometers (garnet-biotite, garnet-amphibole, and garnet-clinopyroxene) to these xenoliths indicates that the lower crust was at a maximum temperature of roughly 500 °C at the time of kimberlite eruption (~ 55 Ma). The actual temperature of the lower crust is likely lower than 500 °C as the geothermometers probably record the closure temperature of diffusional Fe2+-Mg exchange between touching mineral pairs rather than the ambient temperature of the rocks prior to their entrainment in the kimberlite magma. Heat-producing element (HPE) concentration measurements show that the lower crustal heat production of the Slave craton is likely 0.14 ± 0.02 ?W/m3, which is lower than most values in the literature but broadly comparable to some geophysical estimates. This estimate is the result of (20:80) bimodal mixing of idealized lower crustal endmembers: a metasedimentary lower crust (0.37 ± 0.06 ?W/m3) and a mafic lower crust (0.08 ± 0.01 ?W/m3). These endmembers were iii calculated via a reconstructed bulk rock calculation utilizing trace element concentrations of constituent lower crustal minerals and idealized lithologies from the lower crustal xenoliths. Using these heat production estimates and other crustal parameters such as continental heat flux, mantle heat flux, crustal thickness, and crustal thermal conductivity, I modeled a Moho temperature for the Slave craton of 425 °C, which is consistent with maximum lower crustal temperature estimate given by geothermometry. Adjusting the lower crustal heat production in the geotherm modeling program FITPLOT changes the temperature of the Moho in a similar fashion to the calculated models; however, the diamond propensity of the mantle lithosphere (partially a function of Moho temperature and heat production) does not appear to be strongly affected by a changing Moho temperature and is more strongly controlled by the conditions of the mantle P-T array.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, Vol. 278, pp. 78-83.
Canada, Northwest Territories
kimberlites
Abstract: Kimberlite-borne granulite xenoliths provide rare insights into the age, chemical composition and tectonothermal evolution of the otherwise largely inaccessible deep cratonic crust. The formation and transformation of the lower continental crust (LCC) beneath the central Slave craton (Canada) is here illuminated using whole-rock trace-element and Sr-Nd isotope compositions of nine metabasaltic (MBG), one gabbroic (MGG) and two metasedimentary/hybrid (MSG) granulite xenoliths. On the one hand, published sulphide Re-Os and a few zircon U-Pb data indicate that at least a portion of the LCC beneath the central Slave craton has a Palaeoarchaean origin (?3.3?Ga), which apparently coincides with a period of juvenile crust and deep lithospheric mantle formation during plume impingement beneath the pre-existing cratonic nucleus. On the other hand, enrichment in Li, Sr, LREE, Pb and Th, but relative depletion in Ti, Hf and HREE, suggest formation of (picro)basaltic protoliths by partial melting of a subduction-modified garnet-bearing source, Crystallisation in the crust after fractionation of plagioclase is inidicated by their Sr and Eu negative anomalies, which are complementary to the positive anomalies in the MGG. Samarium-Nd isotopes in MBG and MGG show large scatter, but fall on Neo- or Mesoarchaean age arrays. These elemental systematics are suggested to fingerprint deserpentinisation fluids plus small amounts of sedimentary melt as the main contaminants of the mantle source, supporting the operation of at least regional and transient subduction at 3.3?Ga. Evidence for quasi-coeval plume impingement and subduction beneath the central Slave craton in the Mesoarchaean is reconcilable in a dynamic regime where vertical tectonics, though waning, was still active and plate interactions became increasingly important. Unradiogenic 87Sr/86Sr (down to 0.7017) is consistent with significant loss of Rb and probably other heat-producing elements (K, Th, U) plus H2O during Neoarchaean metamorphism, which helped to enhance LCC viscosity and stabilise the cratonic lithosphere.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, in press available 59p. Pdf
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Panda
Abstract: Diamonds containing fluid inclusions provide invaluable samples of upper mantle fluids, the study of which illuminates not only diamond formation but also the long-term evolution of the subcratonic, lithospheric mantle. The very large range of inclusion compositions worldwide has been interpreted to represent four end-member fluids: saline (rich in Na+K+Cl); silicic (rich in Si+Al); and carbonatitic (rich in Ca+Mg+Fe, with low-Mg and high-Mg end members). However, the sources and evolution of these fluids and the processes involved in diamond formation are still unclear. We used an unusual study of diamonds from the Panda kimberlite (Ekati Mine, Northwest Territories, Canada) in which both mineral and fluid inclusions in the diamonds were analyzed (Tomlinson et al., 2006) to develop models of the saline, silicic, and low-Mg carbonatitic fluids present in the Panda fluid inclusions. The models used aqueous speciation and solubility calculations to link the solid and fluid inclusion chemistry with model upper mantle rock types. We used the extended Deep Earth Water model to calculate equilibrium constants previously calibrated with experimental rock solubilities referring to upper mantle temperatures and pressures (Huang and Sverjensky, 2019). Our results at 950 °C and 4.5 GPa suggest that the saline fluid could originate from peridotite, the silicic fluid from eclogite, and the low-Mg carbonatitic fluid from carbonated dunite. The fluid models were then used to predict the irreversible, chemical mass transfer when the carbonatitic fluid infiltrated a harzburgite containing a saline fluid. Simultaneous reduction of formate and bicarbonate in the carbonatitic fluid and oxidation of aqueous hydrocarbons from the peridotitic fluid during mixing and reaction with harzburgite resulted in the formation of diamond, olivine, garnet, and clinopyroxene, and increases in the and . Olivine was predicted to become more Fe-rich and garnet more Ca and Fe-rich with reaction progress, in agreement with reported temporal trends (core-to-rim) in the Panda mineral inclusions. The fluid at the site of diamond formation became more saline with reaction progress and the predicted aqueous phase concentrations of all elements changed consistent with trends in Panda fluid inclusions. In contrast, a prediction for a saline fluid infiltrating a harzburgite containing a carbonatitic fluid resulted in trends of the silicate minerals and the salinity with reaction progress that were in the opposite direction to data from the Panda diamonds. Overall, our study strongly supports the notion that fluids from subducting slabs could mix and precipitate diamonds containing carbon from both oxidized and reduced sources, while adding Ca and Fe to the sub-lithospheric cratonic mantle through metasomatic reactions.
South America, Brazil, Africa, South Africa, Guinea, Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Sao Luis, Juina
Abstract: Bridgmanite (Mg,Fe)SiO3, a high pressure silicate with a perovskite structure, is dominant material in the lower mantle at the depths from 660 to 2700 km and therefore is probably the most abundant mineral in the Earth. Although synthetic analogues of this mineral have been well studied, no naturally occurring samples had ever been found in a rock on the planet’s surface except in some shocked meteorites. Due to its unstable nature under ambient conditions, this phase undergoes retrograde transformation to a pyroxene-type structure. The identification of the retrograde phase as ‘bridgmanite’ in so-called superdeep diamonds was based on the association with ferropericlase (Mg,Fe)O and other high-pressure (supposedly lower-mantle) minerals predicted from theoretical models and HP-HT experiments. In this study pyroxene inclusions in diamond grains from Juina (Brazil), one single-phase (Sample SL-14) and two composite inclusions of (Mg,Fe)SiO3 coexisting with (Mg,Fe)3Al2Si3O12 (Sample SL-13), and with (Mg,Fe)3Al2Si3O12 and (Mg,Fe)2SiO4 (Sample SL-80) have been analyzed to identify retrograde phases of former bridgmanite. XRD and Raman spectroscopy have revealed that these are orthopyroxene (Opx). (Mg,Fe)2SiO4 and (Mg,Fe)3Al2Si3O12 in these inclusions are identified as olivine and jeffbenite (TAPP). These inclusions are associated with inclusions of (Mg,Fe)O (SL-14), CaSiO3 (SL-80) and composite inclusion of CaSiO3+CaTiO3 (SL-13). XRD patterns of (Mg,Fe)SiO3 inclusions indicate that they consist of polycrystals. This polycrystalline textures together with high lattice strain of host diamond around these inclusions observed from EBSD may be an evidence for the retrograde phase transition of former bridgmanite. Single-phase inclusions of (Mg,Fe)SiO3 in superdeep diamonds are suggested to represent a retrograde phase of bridgmanite and fully inherit its initial chemical composition, including a high Al and low Ni contents [Harte, Hudson, 2013; Kaminsky, 2017]. The composite inclusions of (Mg,Fe)SiO3 with jeffbenite and other silicate and oxide phases may be interpreted as exolusion products from originally homogeneous bridgmanite [Walter et al., 2011]. The bulk compositions of these composite inclusions are rich in Al, Ti, and Fe which are similar to Al-rich bridgmanite produced in experiments on the MORB composition. However, the retrograde origin of composite inclusions due to decomposition of Al-rich bridgmanite may be doubtful because each of observed phases may represent single-phase inclusions, i.e. bridgmanite and high pressure garnet (majoritic garnet), with similar compositional features.
Abstract: Kimberlites are the surface manifestation of deeply-derived (>150 km) and rapidly ascended magmas. Fresh kimberlite rocks are exceptionally rare, as most of them are invariably modified by pervasive deuteric and/or post-magmatic fluids that overprint the original mineralogy. In this study, we examined fresh archetypal kimberlite from the Mark pipe (Lac de Gras, Canada), which is characterised by well-preserved olivine and groundmass minerals. The sequence of crystallisation of the parental melt and its major compositional features, including oxygen fugacity, were reconstructed using textural relationships between magmatic minerals, their zoning patterns and crystal/melt/fluid inclusions. Crystal and multiphase primary, pseudosecondary and secondary melt/fluid inclusions in olivine, Cr-diopside, spinel, perovskite, phlogopite/kinoshitalite, apatite and calcite preserve a record of different stages of kimberlite melt evolution. Melt/fluid inclusions are generally more depleted in silica and more enriched in alkalis (K, Na), alkali-earth (Ba, Sr) and halogens (Cl, F) relative to the whole-rock composition of the Mark kimberlite. These melt/fluid inclusion compositions, in combination with presence of elevated CaO (up to 1.73 wt%), in Mg-rich olivine rinds, crystallisation of groundmass kinoshitalite, carbonates (calcite, Sr-Ba-bearing) and alkali-enriched rims around apatite suggest that there was progressive enrichment in CO2, alkalis and halogens in the evolving parental melt. The Mark kimberlite groundmass is characterised by the following stages of in-situ crystallisation: (1) olivine rims around xenocrystic cores + Cr-spinel/TIMAC. (2) Mg-rich olivine rinds around olivine rims/cores + MUM-spinel (followed by pleonaste and Mg-magnetite) + monticellite (+ partial resorption of olivine, along with the formation of ferropericlase and CO2 as a result of decarbonation reactions) + perovskite + apatite. (3) Olivine outmost rinds, which are coeval with phlogopite/kinoshitalite + apatite + sulphides + carbonate (calcite, Ba-Sr-Na-bearing varieties). In addition, oxygen fugacity of the Mark kimberlite was constrained by olivine-chromite, perovskite and monticellite oxygen barometry and showed that the parental melt became progressively more oxidised in response to fractional crystallisation. (4) Deuteric (i.e. late-stage magmatic) and/or post-magmatic (i.e. external fluids) alteration of magmatic minerals (e.g., olivine, monticellite, ferropericlase) and crystallisation of mesostasis serpentine, K-bearing chlorite and brucite (i.e. replacement of ferropericlase). The absence of any alkali (Na, K) and halogen (F, Cl) rich groundmass minerals in the Mark kimberlite may be attributed to these elements becoming concentrated in the late-stage melt where they potentially formed unstable, water-soluble carbonates (such as those observed in melt inclusions). Consequently, these minerals were most likely removed from the groundmass by deuteric and/or post-magmatic alteration.
Abstract: The geochemistry and distribution of garnets in the southern Slave Province could have considerable implications for drift prospecting and diamond potential. Presented here is a study interpretting geochemistry in dispersal trains of the Slave Province. Over one-hundred-thousand garnets have been sampled from the northern Slave Province with quantitative analyses conducted on each sample, and the data has been compiled for public release (NTGS Data Hub, 2018). A smaller subset of samples have been collected in the southern Slave Province by this study and the NTGS within recent years. Data from the NTGS is used in this study to construct regional maps showing dispersal trains of indicator minerals and chemistry of indicator garnets throughout the region. The variation in dispersal train pattern, size, mineralogy, and chemistry are being utilized to assess the southern Slave for it’s kimberlite potential. The geochemistry of garnets is used to make further observations into the diamond potential of the area using the garnet classifications G3D, G4D, G5D, and G10D (Grutter et al., 2004). It has been observed that there is an abundance of Na2O rich (>0.07 wt %) garnets in the northern Slave Province and a deficit of Na2O (<0.07 wt %) in garnets of the south. There is also a visible discrepency in olivine in the north and south, with the north Slave showing olivine in dispersal trains and the south lacking any olivine. These discrepancies in Na2O could be indicative of pressure/temperature conditions that coincide with diamond formation in the north (Grutter et al., 2004). The olivine dispersal may be the product of glacial dispersal in conjunction with the facies/mineralogy of kimberlites in the immediate area.
Abstract: Experiments on diamond crystallization in kimberlite melt were performed for 40 h at 6.3 GPa in the temperature range of 1300-1570 °C and at 7.5 GPa in the temperature range of 1450-1570 °C, using a multianvil high-pressure apparatus of split-sphere type. Group I kimberlite from the Udachnaya-East pipe and a synthetic multicomponent mixture modeling the average composition of group II kimberlites were used as starting materials. The experiments have shown that diamond growth on seed crystals in the kimberlite melt in equilibrium with olivine, pyroxene, and garnet starts from 1400 °C at 7.5 GPa and from 1520 °C at 6.3 GPa. Diamond nucleation requires higher temperature and pressure, 1570 °C and 7.5 GPa. The alkali-enriched and silicate-depleted derivates of kimberlite melts ensure the growth and nucleation of diamond at lower P and T values: 1400 °C at 7.5 GPa and 1520 °C at 6.3 GPa. The results obtained evidence that temperature, pressure, and the composition of crystallization medium are the main factors controlling diamond formation processes in the kimberlite melts and their derivates.
Abstract: Wehrlite and pyroxenite xenoliths and megacrysts from the Jericho kimberlite were analyzed by ?XRF and EBSD, and for major elements, trace elements, and isotopes (Pb-Sr- O) in major phases. Thermobarometry places these samples at 60 - 180 km and 600 - 1200 ??C. While modes and textures vary, many samples have olivine-olivine grain boundaries with straight edges and 120° angle junctions, indicating granoblastic recrystallisation, while clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene are complexly intergrown. Clinopyroxene twins and subgrains recording orientations distinct from the encapsulating grain were detected using EBSD and are inferred to represent recent modification processes. Several distinct garnet compositions were measured, with multiple thin garnet rims in some samples suggesting possible successive stages of garnet crystallisation. Complex chromium zoning in garnet is detected by ?XRF in several samples (fig.1). Pb-Pb ages for most samples are similar to the age of kimberlite entrainment (173 Ma), but the shallowest pyroxenite sample preserves the most radiogenic Pb composition, intercecting concordia at 0.7 - 1.1 Ga, and is the only sample with ?18O above the mantle range (6.2±0.1 ‰). The deepest sample has the lowest ?18O (5.5±0.1 ‰) and radiogenic 87Sr/86Sr similar to MARID rocks (0.709±1 ‰). These results suggest the Jericho lithosphere experienced several melt/fluid injection events that modified substantial portions of the sampled section soon before kimberlite entrainment.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, in press available, doi.org/101016 /j.gca.2020.07.013 45p. Pdf
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Lac de Gras
Abstract: Whether hydrogen incorporated in nominally anhydrous mantle minerals plays a role in the strength and longevity of the thick cratonic lithosphere is a matter of debate. In particular, the percolation of hydrogen-bearing melts and fluids could potentially add hydrogen to the mantle lithosphere, weaken its olivines (the dominant mineral in mantle peridotite), and cause delamination of the lithosphere's base. The influence of metasomatism on hydrogen contents of cratonic mantle minerals can be tested in mantle xenoliths from the Slave Craton (Canada) because they show extensive evidence for metasomatism of a layered cratonic mantle. Minerals from mantle xenoliths from the Diavik mine in the Lac de Gras kimberlite area located at the center of the Archean Slave craton were analyzed by FTIR for hydrogen contents. The 18 peridotites, two pyroxenites, one websterite and one wehrlite span an equilibration pressure range from 3.1 to 6.6 GPa and include samples from the shallow (? 145 km), oxidized ultra-depleted layer; the deeper (?145-180 km), reduced less depleted layer; and an ultra-deep (? 180 km) layer near the base of the lithosphere. Olivine, orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene and garnet from peridotites contain 30 - 145, 110 - 225, 105 - 285, 2 - 105 ppm H2O, respectively. Within each deep and ultra-deep layer, correlations of hydrogen contents in minerals and tracers of metasomatism (for example light over heavy rare-earth-element ratio (LREE/HREE), high-field-strength-element (HFSE) content with equilibration pressure) can be explained by a chromatographic process occurring during the percolation of kimberlite-like melts through garnet peridotite. The hydrogen content of peridotite minerals is controlled by the compositions of the evolving melt and of the minerals and by mineral/melt partition coefficients. At the beginning of the process, clinopyroxene scavenges most of the hydrogen and garnet most of the HFSE. As the melt evolves and becomes enriched in hydrogen and LREE, olivine and garnet start to incorporate hydrogen and pyroxenes become enriched in LREE. The hydrogen content of peridotite increases with decreasing depth, overall (e.g., from 75 to 138 ppm H2O in the deep peridotites). Effective viscosity calculated using olivine hydrogen content for the deepest xenoliths near the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary overlaps with estimates of asthenospheric viscosities. These xenoliths cannot be representative of the overall cratonic root because the lack of viscosity contrast would have caused basal erosion of lithosphere. Instead, metasomatism must be confined in narrow zones channeling kimberlite melts through the lithosphere and from where xenoliths are preferentially sampled. Such localized metasomatism by hydrogen-bearing melts therefore does not necessarily result in delamination of the cratonic root.
South America, Brazil, Africa, South Africa, Canada, Northwest Territories
geochronology
Abstract: Kimberlites emplaced since ~2 Ga show Nd and Hf isotopic compositions that follow a remarkably consistent linear evolution [1]. However, kimberlites emplaced <200 Ma within a few thousand kilometers of the western paleo-margin of Pangea (i.e. Brazil, southern Africa, and Lac de Gras in western Canada) deviate towards more enriched Nd and Hf isotopic compositions possibly due to contribution by recycled crustal material, introduced to the deep kimberlite source via subduction [1]. To address this anomaly further we have compared new and existing geochronological and Nd isotopic data for 28 kimberlites from Lac de Gras (LDG; ca. 47 - 75 Ma) with their olivine and spinel mineral chemistries. Olivine grains typically include mantle-derived xenocrystic cores (Mg# = 83.5-94.2) overgrown by magmatic rims with relatively constant Mg# values. Olivine rims and chromite are the first magmatic phases to crystallise from kimberlite and can be used as proxies for primitive melt compositions. The average Mg# of olivine cores from each kimberlite is positively correlated with average olivine rim Mg#, suggesting that assimilation of heterogeneous lithospheric mantle contributed to the primitive melt compositions. The ?Nd(i) values from whole-rock and perovskite from LDG kimberlites vary between -3.4 and -0.4 that are negatively correlated with their emplacement ages. This correlation is indicative of an evolving kimberlite source which may have resulted from a progressively lower contribution of recycled material. No systematic relationships were observed between olivine rim or chromite compositions and age or Nd isotopic composition. This observation highlights decoupling between kimberlite source evolution and primitive melt compositions due to the combined effects of crustal recycling in the kimberlite source and lithospheric mantle assimilation during kimberlite ascent.
Africa, South Africa, Guinea, Australia,South America, Brazil, Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Koffiefontein, Kankan, Lac de Gras, Juina, Machado, Orroroo
Abstract: (Mg,Fe)SiO3 bridgmanite is the dominant phase in the lower mantle; however no naturally occurring samples had ever been found in terrestrial samples as it undergoes retrograde transformation to a pyroxene-type structure. To identify retrograde phases of former bridgmanite single-phase and composite inclusions of (Mg,Fe)SiO3 in a series of superdeep diamonds have been examined with electron microscopy, electron microprobe, Raman spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction techniques. Our study revealed that (Mg,Fe)SiO3 inclusions are represented by orthopyroxene. Orthopyroxenes in single-phase and composite inclusions inherit initial chemical composition of bridgmanites, including a high Al and low Ni contents. In composite inclusions they coexist with jeffbenite (ex-TAPP) and olivine. The bulk compositions of these composite inclusions are rich in Al, Ti, and Fe, which are similar but not fully resembling Al-rich bridgmanite produced in experiments on the MORB composition. The retrograde origin of composite inclusions due to decomposition of Al-rich bridgmanite may be doubtful because each of observed minerals may represent coexisting HP phases, i.e. bridgmanite or ringwoodite.
Drift prospecting for kimberlite in the Slave geological Province: why your KIM-bearing sediment samples may not lead you to kimberlite.
Vancouver Kimberlite Cluster, Sept. 30, 1p. Abstract
Canada, Northwest territories
geochemistry
Abstract: Drift prospecting has been used for decades in the Slave Geological Province, NWT, to identify kimberlite indicator mineral and geochemical dispersals. These dispersals, in conjunction with geophysics and drilling, have led to many kimberlite discoveries. The sources of most well-defined dispersal patterns have been identified, and exploration must now focus on inauspicious regions where primary dispersal from kimberlite has been obscured by post-depositional changes to the landscape. Detailed surficial interpretations from readily available, high-resolution imagery and digital elevation data are a powerful asset when working in these challenging environments. Interpretations tailored to exploration provide the necessary context to unravel the complexities in the surficial geology and reconcile complex dispersal patterns. This presentation will demonstrate how the understanding and recognition of unique depositional environments and post-depositional modification of sediments can provide new insight into historical data, reduce the effort and resources required to collect new high-quality samples and inform data evaluations, ultimately providing lower-risk exploration targets.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, Vol. 286, pp. 29-83. pdf
Canada, Northwest Territories
xenoliths
Abstract: Whether hydrogen incorporated in nominally anhydrous mantle minerals plays a role in the strength and longevity of the thick cratonic lithosphere is a matter of debate. In particular, the percolation of hydrogen-bearing melts and fluids could potentially add hydrogen to the mantle lithosphere, weaken its olivines (the dominant mineral in mantle peridotite), and cause delamination of the lithosphere's base. The influence of metasomatism on hydrogen contents of cratonic mantle minerals can be tested in mantle xenoliths from the Slave Craton (Canada) because they show extensive evidence for metasomatism of a layered cratonic mantle. Minerals from mantle xenoliths from the Diavik mine in the Lac de Gras kimberlite area located at the center of the Archean Slave craton were analyzed by FTIR for hydrogen contents. The 18 peridotites, two pyroxenites, one websterite and one wehrlite span an equilibration pressure range from 3.1 to 6.6 GPa and include samples from the shallow (?145?km), oxidized ultra-depleted layer; the deeper (?145-180?km), reduced less depleted layer; and an ultra-deep (?180?km) layer near the base of the lithosphere. Olivine, orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene and garnet from peridotites contain 30-145, 110-225, 105-285, 2-105?ppm H2O, respectively. Within each deep and ultra-deep layer, correlations of hydrogen contents in minerals and tracers of metasomatism (for example light over heavy rare-earth-element ratio (LREE/HREE), high-field-strength-element (HFSE) content with equilibration pressure) can be explained by a chromatographic process occurring during the percolation of kimberlite-like melts through garnet peridotite. The hydrogen content of peridotite minerals is controlled by the compositions of the evolving melt and of the minerals and by mineral/melt partition coefficients. At the beginning of the process, clinopyroxene scavenges most of the hydrogen and garnet most of the HFSE. As the melt evolves and becomes enriched in hydrogen and LREE, olivine and garnet start to incorporate hydrogen and pyroxenes become enriched in LREE. The hydrogen content of peridotite increases with decreasing depth, overall (e.g., from 75 to 138?ppm H2O in the deep peridotites). Effective viscosity calculated using olivine hydrogen content for the deepest xenoliths near the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary overlaps with estimates of asthenospheric viscosities. These xenoliths cannot be representative of the overall cratonic root because the lack of viscosity contrast would have caused basal erosion of lithosphere. Instead, metasomatism must be confined in narrow zones channeling kimberlite melts through the lithosphere and from where xenoliths are preferentially sampled. Such localized metasomatism by hydrogen-bearing melts therefore does not necessarily result in delamination of the cratonic root.
Earth and Planetary Letters, Vol. 550, 116549, 13p.
Global, United States, Wyoming, Canada, Northwest Territories, Europe, Baltic, India
geothermometry
Abstract: Cratonic lithosphere is believed to have been chemically buoyant and mechanically resistant to destruction over billions of years. Yet the absence of cratonic roots at some Archean terrains casts doubt on the craton stability and longevity on a global scale. As unique mantle-derived melts at ancient continents, silica-poor, kimberlitic melts are ideal tools to constrain the temporal variation of lithosphere thickness and the processes affecting the lithosphere root. However, no reliable thermobarometer exists to date for strongly silica-undersaturated, mantle-derived melts. Here we develop a new thermobarometer for silica-poor, CO2-rich melts using high-temperature, high-pressure experimental data. Our barometer is calibrated based on a new observation of pressure-dependent variation of Al2O3 in partial melts saturated with garnet and olivine, while our thermometer is calibrated based on the well-known olivine-melt Mg-exchange. For applications to natural magmas, we also establish a correction scheme to estimate their primary melt compositions. Applying this liquid-based thermobarometer to the estimated primary melt compositions for a global kimberlite dataset, we show that the equilibration depths between primary kimberlite melts and mantle peridotites indicate a decrease of up to ?150 km in cratonic lithosphere thickness globally during the past ?2 Gyr. Together with the temporal coupling between global kimberlite frequency and cold subduction flux since ?2 Gyr ago, our results imply a causal link between lithosphere thinning and supply of CO2-rich melts enhanced by deep subduction of carbonated oceanic crusts. While hibernating at the lithosphere root, these melts chemically metasomatize and rheologically weaken the rigid lithosphere and consequently facilitate destruction through convective removal in the ambient mantle or thermo-magmatic erosion during mantle plume activities.
Lithos, doi.org/10.1016/ j.lithos.2020.105889 13p. Pdf
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Diavik A-154
Abstract: Ambient Moho temperatures and lower crustal heat production are surprisingly poorly constrained in cratons. Here we address these problems using 15 lower crustal xenoliths from the Diavik A-154 kimberlite, Slave craton, Canada. Iron?magnesium exchange geothermometry on small biotite and amphibole inclusions in garnet indicates that the Slave craton lower crust was at a temperature of ?500 °C at the time of kimberlite eruption (~55 Ma). The ambient lower crustal temperature was likely lower than 500 °C because the thermometers record the closure temperature of diffusional Fe2+-Mg exchange between touching mineral pairs. New measurements of K, U and Th concentrations in the constituent minerals, together with xenolith modes, allow reconstruction of the heat-producing element (HPE) K, U, and Th budget of the Slave craton lower crust. Metasedimentary granulites have an average heat production of 0.29 ± 0.01 ?W/m3 (n = 3) whereas mafic granulites have an average heat production of 0.13 ± 0.03 ?W/m3 (n = 12). Our new data clearly show that plagioclase abundance in both lithologies has a major influence on overall lower crustal heat production, being an important reservoir of all three HPE. Combining the heat production of mafic and metasedimentary granulites in their observed 80:20 proportions results in an average heat production value for the Slave craton lower crust of 0.16 ± 0.03 ?W/m3. Using these heat production estimates, modeled Moho temperatures beneath Diavik of ~450-470 °C are broadly consistent with maximum lower crustal temperatures indicated by geothermometry. The low HPE contents predicted for cratonic lower crust must result in lower temperatures in the deep crust and mantle lithosphere, and in turn higher estimates for the thickness of mantle lithosphere. This effect becomes larger as the thickness of the low-HPE lower crustal layer increases. In the specific case of the central Slave craton, we find that model estimates of the diamond potential of the mantle lithosphere, as judged by the proportion of lithospheric mantle in the diamond stability field, are not strongly affected by small variations in lower crustal heat production and Moho temperature.
Journal of the Geological Society, doi.org/10.1144 /jgs2020-184 53p. Pdf
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Muskox
Abstract: Low-Cr and high-Cr clinopyroxene, garnet, olivine, and ilmenite megacrysts from the Muskox kimberlite (Canada) have been analyzed for major and trace elements, as well as Sr, Nd, and Pb isotopes. Samples display compositional overlap with respective phases in websterite, while clinopyroxene isotope systematics reveal similarities with both websteritic and metasomatic clinopyroxene in peridotites from the same kimberlite, in addition to Muskox and Jericho kimberlite. All lithologies may represent the products of mixing between EM1 mantle, relic Proterozoic enriched mantle and HIMU carbonatitic fluid. Equilibrium melts calculated from clinopyroxene trace element data using experimental distribution coefficients for feasible proto-kimberlitic melts yield a range of possible metasomatic agents. Conclusion on the carbonate-bearing nature of the metasomatism was based on the presence of a HIMU isotopic signature and results obtained from thermodynamic modeling using the Deep Earth Water model. The latter shows that mineral compositions analogous to megacrysts cannot be produced by metasomatism of mantle peridotite by H2O-rich kimberlitic fluids, or fluids in equilibrium with either asthenospheric or eclogitic mantle. Isotope systematics argue against a strictly cognate relationship between megacrysts and their host kimberlite, instead suggesting megacrysts and websterites may represent products of regional metasomatism by carbonatitic HIMU fluids shortly predating kimberlite magmatism.
Abstract: The Nonacho Group comprises six formations of continental clastic rocks that were deposited between 1.91 and 1.83?Ga. The Nonacho Group is part of a broader assemblage of conglomerate and sandstone that was deposited atop the Rae craton in response to the amalgamation of Laurentia and supercontinent Nuna, but the details of its tectonic setting are contentious. This paper documents an outlier of Nonacho Group rocks ?50?km east of the main Nonacho basin. Field observations and LA-ICPMS (laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry) U-Pb detrital zircon geochronology are integrated with previous studies of the main basin to better understand the group’s depositional history, provenance and tectonic setting. The lithology and detrital zircon age spectra of the outlier allow for its correlation to the upper two formations of the Nonacho Group. CA-ID-TIMS (chemical abrasion isotope dilution thermal ionization mass spectrometry) analyses of two fragments of the youngest detrital zircon provide a maximum depositional age of 1901.0?±?0.9?Ma. A felsic volcanic cobble dated at ca. 2.38?Ga provides evidence of volcanism during the Arrowsmith orogeny. Detrital zircon dates recovered from the outlier (ca. 3.4-3.0, 2.7, 2.5-2.3 and 2.0-1.9?Ga) are consistent with derivation from topography of the Taltson and/or Thelon orogens on the western margin of the Rae craton. Taltson-Thelon (2.0 to 1.9?Ga) aged detritus is only abundant in the upper two formations of the Nonacho Group, marking a change in provenance from the lower formations. This change in provenance may have coincided with a period of renewed uplift and the unroofing of Taltson-Thelon plutons. The detrital zircon provenance and depositional age of the Nonacho Group is consistent with models that link its deposition to the Taltson and/or Thelon orogens. However, tectonism associated with the 1.9 to 1.8?Ga Snowbird and Trans-Hudson orogens to the east could also have affected basin formation or the change in provenance from the lower to upper Nonacho Group. This study highlights the importance of CA-ID-TIMS in establishing accurate and precise maximum depositional ages for sedimentary successions.
Abstract: The Trans-Hudson Orogen (THO), formed from the convergence between the Superior craton and the composite Churchill Upper Plate (CUP), is one of the best-preserved examples of a collisional orogen in the Paleoproterozoic. Similar to modern collision systems such as the Himalayan orogen, it is characterized by a composite upper plate in which terrane accretion established a continental plateau that was tectonically and magmatically active for >100 myr. Our study presents new petrological and geochronological data for four samples collected in three lithotectonic domains of the south Rae craton (one of the CUP terranes). The results presented here allow us to re-define the previously proposed extent of THO reworking in the CUP and afford the opportunity to study and compare the evolution of various fragments that illustrate differing levels of a collapsed plateau in the CUP hinterland. The new data indicate that the south Rae craton locally preserves evidence for burial at 1.855-1.84 Ga with peak metamorphic conditions at approximately 790 °C and 9.5-12.5 kbar followed by rapid cooling and decompression melting (P < 6 kbar) at ca. 1.835-1.826 Ga. These results, which provide important and so far missing Pressure-Temperature-time (P-T-t) constraints on the evolution of the south Rae craton in the Northwest Territories at Trans-Hudson time, coupled with existing regional geochronological and geochemical data, are used to propose an updated model for the post-1.9 Ga THO collision and extensional collapse. Our results reveal that: i) initial thickening in the upper plate started at Snowbird time (ca. 1.94 Ga), then continued via Sask collision (with high-grade metamorphism recorded in the south Rae craton, ca. 1.85 Ga), and ended with Superior collision (ca. 1.83 Ga); ii) the extent of the THO structural and metamorphic overprint in the SW CUP is much broader across strike than previously recognized, and iii) T-t data in the south Rae are indicative of relatively fast cooling rates (8-25 °C/Ma) compared to other known Precambrian orogens. We suggest that the Paleoproterozoic THO represents the first record of a major ‘modern-style’ orogenic plateau collapse in Earth’s history.
Nature Scientific Reports, 10.1038/s41598-021-83261-6 11p. Pdf
Canada, Northwest Territories
metasomatism
Abstract: We present the first oxidation state measurements for the subcontinental lithospheric mantle (SCLM) beneath the Rae craton, northern Canada, one of the largest components of the Canadian shield. In combination with major and trace element compositions for garnet and clinopyroxene, we assess the relationship between oxidation state and metasomatic overprinting. The sample suite comprises peridotite xenoliths from the central part (Pelly Bay) and the craton margin (Somerset Island) providing insights into lateral and vertical variations in lithospheric character. Our suite contains spinel, garnet-spinel and garnet peridotites, with most samples originating from 100 to 140 km depth. Within this narrow depth range we observe strong chemical gradients, including variations in oxygen fugacity (ƒO2) of over 4 log units. Both Pelly Bay and Somerset Island peridotites reveal a change in metasomatic type with depth. Observed geochemical systematics and textural evidence support the notion that Rae SCLM developed through amalgamation of different local domains, establishing chemical gradients from the start. These gradients were subsequently modified by migrating melts that drove further development of different types of metasomatic overprinting and variable oxidation at a range of length scales. This oxidation already apparent at ~?100 km depth could have locally destabilised any pre-existing diamond or graphite.
Nature, doi.org/101038/ s41586-021-03395-5 5p. Pdf
Canada, Northwest Territories
craton
Abstract: Cratons are Earth’s ancient continental land masses that remain stable for billions of years. The mantle roots of cratons are renowned as being long-lived, stable features of Earth’s continents, but there is also evidence of their disruption in the recent1,2,3,4,5,6 and more distant7,8,9 past. Despite periods of lithospheric thinning during the Proterozoic and Phanerozoic eons, the lithosphere beneath many cratons seems to always ‘heal’, returning to a thickness of 150 to 200 kilometres10,11,12; similar lithospheric thicknesses are thought to have existed since Archaean times3,13,14,15. Although numerous studies have focused on the mechanism for lithospheric destruction2,5,13,16,17,18,19, the mechanisms that recratonize the lithosphere beneath cratons and thus sustain them are not well understood. Here we study kimberlite-borne mantle xenoliths and seismology across a transect of the cratonic lithosphere of Arctic Canada, which includes a region affected by the Mackenzie plume event 1.27 billion years ago20. We demonstrate the important role of plume upwelling in the destruction and recratonization of roughly 200-kilometre-thick cratonic lithospheric mantle in the northern portion of the Slave craton. Using numerical modelling, we show how new, buoyant melt residues produced by the Mackenzie plume event are captured in a region of thinned lithosphere between two thick cratonic blocks. Our results identify a process by which cratons heal and return to their original lithospheric thickness after substantial disruption of their roots. This process may be widespread in the history of cratons and may contribute to how cratonic mantle becomes a patchwork of mantle peridotites of different age and origin.
Vancouver Kimberlite Cluster recorded, https://youtu.be/ GMyoKHoQrJE
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Gahcho Kue
Abstract: A primary rock-hosted diamond Deposit to Reserve Asset Development Standard model governed under the 2014 Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum definition standards on Mineral Resources and Reserves and 2016 Toronto Stock Exchange National Instrument 43-101 - Standards of Disclosure for Mineral Projects, is presented and discussed. The Gahcho Kué Mine De Beers Canada - Mountain Province Diamonds joint venture project roadmap from exploration commencing in 1992 to definitive Feasibility Study in 2010 is reviewed under the incorporated 2003 Guidelines for the Reporting of Diamond Exploration Results and 2008 Estimation of Mineral Resources and Mineral Reserves Best Practices Guidelines for Rock Hosted Diamonds. Karowe and Ekati-Sable diamond mines histories are also compared. The Asset Development Standard model utilizes a published De Beers system of kimberlite Deposit to Reserves geo-scientific scorecard classification, that is aligned with reporting of Desktop, Conceptual and Pre-Feasibility to Feasibility Studies.
Geological Association of Canada Bookstore, https://gac.ca/publications/bookstore Special Paper 51, 216p. Prices 42.50 member, $75.00 non-member isbn:978-1-897095-89-8
Canada, Northwest Territories
Craton
Abstract: With its well-exposed geologic record from the Hadean Acasta gneiss complex through to Phanerozoic kimberlites, the Slave craton of northwestern Canada has long been a focus for research into early Earth evolution of both the crust and lithosphere. As a result, it has become one of the most extensively studied Archean cratons in the world. This multidisciplinary volume provides an authoritative overview of the Slave craton literally from the bottom up, integrating the nature of its lithosphere based on kimberlitic mantle samples with its upper crustal geology to provide a new model for its Archean assembly and cratonization. All aspects of Slave craton geology are covered, from the stratigraphy of its famous gold camps to the history of exploration and nature of its world-class diamondiferous kimberlite fields. Detailed and well-illustrated chapters cover its terranes and greenstone belts, magmatism, geophysical character, tectono-metamorphic evolution, and Paleoproterozoic marginal sequences. The book’s wealth of data and up-to-date bibliography provide a unique resource for understanding, researching and teaching Archean geology and subcrustal and cratonic evolution. It elegantly integrates diverse fields to provide one of the most comprehensive models for the craton and the protracted, multiphase formation of its diamond-bearing lithospheric root. (JK Note: the link above takes you to the GAC web site where Special Paper 51 can be purchased. Because the GAC only provides the abstract and a photo of the front page, I am providing a Table of Contents pdf.)
Abstract: Komatiitic magmatism is a characteristic feature of Archean cratons, diagnostic of the addition of juvenile crust, and a clue to the thermal evolution of early Earth lithosphere. The Slave craton in northwest Canada contains >20 greenstone belts but no identified komatiite. The reason for this dearth of komatiite, when compared to other Archean cratons, remains enigmatic. The Central Slave Cover Group (ca. 2.85 Ga) includes fuchsitic quartzite with relict detrital chromite grains in heavy-mineral laminations. Major and platinum group element systematics indicate that the chromites were derived from Al-undepleted komatiitic dunites. The chromites have low 187Os/188Os ratios relative to chondrite with a narrow range of rhenium depletion ages at 3.19 ± 0.12 Ga. While these ages overlap a documented crust formation event, they identify an unrecognized addition of juvenile crust that is not preserved in the bedrock exposures or the zircon isotopic data. The documentation of komatiitic magmatism via detrital chromites indicates a region of thin lithospheric mantle at ca. 3.2 Ga, either within or at the edge of the protocratonic nucleus. This study demonstrates the applicability of detrital chromites in provenance studies, augmenting the record supplied by detrital zircons.
Abstract: A preliminary field evaluation of rare earth elements (REE) mineralization in the Squalus Lake Alkaline Complex (SLAC) was undertaken for 9 days in the summer of 2021. The focus of the fieldwork was on identifying and characterizing sources of historical anomalous REE assays contained in assessment and government survey reports. The Squalus Lake Alkaline Complex is a syenite-dominated concentric Proterozoic intrusion within the Archean Morose Granite. The intrusion is situated along the Phoenix Fault - a major NNE-trending crustal structure. The core of the complex coincides with a regional-scale magnetic high. These features suggest a classic concentric lithological zonation of the complex with a syenite rim and a carbonatite core. The magnetic anomaly is probably associated with a magnetite-rich ferro-carbonatite phase that typically occurs in the cores of most zoned alkaline/carbonatite complexes. During the fieldwork, evidence for several carbonatite dykes were observed, both in outcrop and in angular float. The dykes are probably emanating from a carbonatite intrusion at the core of the complex, which is interpreted to be underneath Squalus Lake. Sites with reported anomalies were visited and re-sampled. An effort was also made at sampling the different lithological units that were observed. Historically anomalous samples (obtained from the previous prospector) have been re-analyzed to confirm the results and attempts are being made at characterizing the potentials of the various host units. In classic alkaline/carbonatite complex models, high grade REE mineralization is generally associated with the younger ferro-carbonatite phase at the core of the complex. High grade REE mineralization tends to occur in late ferro-carbonatite phases. Previously collected ground-magnetic surveys provide strong discrete targets for the locations of the theorized ferro-carbonatite core, which is a primary target for REE endowment. Curiously, the ~2180 Ma age of the SLAC is similar to the age of several other alkaline complexes in the Slave structural province, including the Big Spruce Lake Complex (~2188Ma) and the Grace Lake Granite (~2176Ma). The Grace Lake Granite is part of the Blatchford Lake Intrusive Suite, which is host to Canada's first REE mine at the Nechalacho Deposit at Thor Lake.
Abstract: Cheetah’s Nechalacho rare earth deposits are located at Thor Lake, 110 kms southeast of Yellowknife, 8 kms north shore of the Hearne Channel on Great Slave Lake. The two principal deposits are the North T deposit, the focus of the current Stage 1 rare earth mining program, and the Nechalacho Tardiff deposit currently in the planning stages for Stage 2 mining. The North T deposit, at 101,000 tonnes grading 9.01% TREO, consists of a 4-metre thick layer of the light rare earth (LREE) mineral bastnaesite, which occurs in coarse grained to massive aggregates in a gangue of pure quartz. The ellipsoidal sub-zone is one of several concentric mineralogically-distinct zones in the ovoid North-T deposit, which is approximately 150 metres in diameter and 150 metres in depth. The bastnaesite sub-zone crops out on surface and dips inward before flattening out in the centre at an average depth of 30 metres. Open-cast extraction commenced in June of 2021, providing feed-stock ore which was processed by XRT sensor-based ore sorting technology which produced a high-grade bastnaesite concentrate for shipment to Hay River and ultimately to Cheetah’s Saskatoon will facility. Stage 2 will see the development of the much larger Tardiff deposit, one of several high-grade LREE sub-zones in the 94.7 million tonnes Nechalacho deposit. The mineralogy is similar to the North T deposit, consisting primarily of bastnaesite, with sub-ordinate REE minerals monazite and allanite. Cheetah has off-take agreements with the Norwegian firm REEtec for Stage 1 production of 1000 tonnes REE (ex-Ce)/year for an initial 5-year period, and an MOU with UCore Rare Metals Inc to supply rare-earth concentrate to their planned separation facility in Alaska.
Abstract: A primary Rock Hosted Diamond Deposit, Resource and Reserve Asset Development Standard (ADS) model governed under the 2014 Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum (CIM) Definition Standards on Mineral Resources and Reserves and 2016 Toronto Stock Exchange National Instrument 43-101 - Standards of Disclosure for Mineral Projects (NI 43-101), is presented. The De Beers Canada - Mountain Province Diamonds joint venture Gahcho Kué Project roadmap from exploration commencing in 1992, reporting of initial Desktop Study in 2000 to definitive Feasibility Study in 2010 and 2014 Study update is reviewed under the incorporated 2003 Guidelines for the Reporting of Diamond Exploration Results and 2008 Estimation of Mineral Resources and Mineral Reserves Best Practices Guidelines for Rock Hosted Diamonds. A published De Beers system of diamond Deposit to Resource geo-scientific scorecard classification is summarized and compared against the CIM and NI 43-101 Definition Standards and reporting guidelines. The ADS governance model utilizes the De Beers classification system, that is aligned with reporting of Desktop, Conceptual and Pre-Feasibility to Feasibility Studies.
Journal of Petrology, 10.1093/petrology/egac028/6553928 24p. pdf
Canada, Northwest Territories
deposit - Lac de Gras
Abstract: In the Lac de Gras (LDG) kimberlite field, Northwest Territories, Canada, coherent kimberlites (CKs) occur as tabular dykes, pipe-shaped diatremes, and irregular bodies without well-defined geometries. Combining the morphology of CK bodies with the occurrence of fragmented olivine microcrysts allows distinction of four CK types at LDG: (1) dykes with no broken olivine; (2) CK without well-defined but probable sheet geometry and no broken olivine; (3) pipe-filling CK (pfCK) with abundant broken olivine and (4) pfCK with no broken olivine. These features suggest an intrusive origin for type 1 and, probably, type 2 CK; a high-energy extrusive emplacement for CK type 3 and a low-energy intrusive or extrusive emplacement for the CK type 4. Here, we compare petrographic and whole-rock, olivine and spinel compositional data for high-energy extrusive pfCK, low-energy pfCK and intrusive CK units to understand the factors controlling their variable emplacement styles. Extrusive CK contain more abundant groundmass phlogopite and monticellite, lower carbonate/silicate mineral abundance ratios and significantly lower dolomite and pleonaste-spinel abundances compared to intrusive CK. This indicates greater CO2 loss and higher H2O/CO2 in the melt phase for the extrusive CK during emplacement. Lower incompatible element concentrations in the extrusive CKs and different chromite Ti# and olivine rim Mg# indicate derivation from distinct primitive melt compositions. The extrusive CK feature higher ?Ndi and marginally higher ?Hfi compositions than the intrusive CK, pointing to derivation from distinct sources. These findings strongly imply that distinct primary melt compositions were largely responsible for the differences in emplacement styles of CK at LDG. Low-energy pfCKs have similar olivine rim Mg#, chromite Ti# and, hence, primitive melt compositions to the high-energy extrusive CK samples. Their marginally different emplacement styles may depend on local factors, such as changing stress regimes, or slightly different volatile concentrations. Both types of pfCK might reflect the waning stages of volcanic sequences resulting from the eruption of a segregated magma column that started with pipe excavation and the explosive emplacement of gas-rich magma (volcaniclastic kimberlite), followed by the less energetic emplacement of melt-rich magma (pfCK). This hypothesis underscores different primary melt compositions for dyke vs pipe-forming (and filling) kimberlites and hence a fundamental primary melt control on the explosivity of kimberlites.
Abstract: The cold, rigid, and melt-depleted mantle underlying Archean cratons plays an important role in the preservation of the overlying continental crust and is one of the main sources of diamonds. However, with the possible exception of rare earth elements (REE) and platinum group-elements (PGE), the concentrations and host mineral phases for many other critical trace elements within lithospheric mantle remain very poorly understood. Here we address that knowledge gap, presenting new electron microprobe and laser-ablation inductively-coupled-plasma mass-spectrometry results for a suite of mantle xenoliths (n = 12) and olivine xenocrysts (n = 376) from the Jericho, Muskox, and Voyageur kimberlites (northern Slave craton, Canada). Low-temperature (<1000 °C) harzburgite xenoliths and olivine xenocrysts suggest that the shallowest portions of the garnet-bearing mantle (?160 km) underlying the northern Slave craton is chemically depleted and becomes increasing re-fertilized from 160 to 200 km. High-temperature (>1000 °C) garnet and clinopyroxene crystals with Ti/Eu ratios > > 1000, and olivine xenocrysts suggest that interaction with ultramafic silicate melts is the most likely mechanism to re-fertilize melt-depleted peridotite with incompatible elements toward the base of the lithosphere (~200 km). In contrast, lower temperature garnet and clinopyroxene with Ti/Eu ratios <1000 are more likely related to metasomatism by carbonatitic melts and/or fluids. Carbonatitic metasomatism is also interpreted as the preferred explanation for the trend of Nb (4 ppm)- and Ta (185 ppb)-rich concentrations of olivine xenocrysts sampled from mid-lithosphere depths (~140 km). With the exception of a few elements that substitute into the olivine crystal structure during sub-solidus re-equilibration (e.g., Ca, Cr, Cu, Na, Sc, V, Zn), most other olivine-hosted trace elements do not systematically vary with depth. Instead, we interpret olivine-hosted trace element concentrations that are significantly above the analytical detection and/or quantification limits to reflect trapped fluid (e.g., As, Mo, Sb, Sn), base-metal sulphide (e.g., Ag, Au, Bi, Pd, Pt, Se, Te), and other mineral inclusions (e.g., U, Th) rather than enrichments of these elements due to substitution reactions or analytical artefacts. We interpret that these inclusions occur in olivine throughout the garnet stability field, but are relatively rare. As a result, these trapped carbonatitic, proto-kimberlite, and/or other ultramafic silicate melts do not represent a significant source for the suite of trace elements that become enriched to economic levels in the crust.
